Cropping Seasons and Farming Systems
Kharif, rabi and zaid seasons, Aus-Aman-Boro, cropping intensity, land-use classes, mixed and relay cropping, and types of farming in India for CGPSC.
Prerequisites
- Climate of India: the arrival and retreat of the south-west monsoon set the kharif calendar; western disturbances help the rabi crop
- Soils and Natural Vegetation: moisture-holding black and clayey soils make rain-fed rabi crops possible
- Rice Bowl of India: Cropping Pattern: the Chhattisgarh version of everything on this page
The Hook: Two Farmers, Two Calendars
A farmer near Dhamtari transplants paddy in July, when the monsoon fills his bunded field. In late October, before cutting the paddy, he scatters teora (lathyrus) seed into the standing crop. That is utera (उतेरा), and the pulse grows on leftover soil moisture. A farmer near Ludhiana also grows paddy in the rains, but in November he sows wheat with tube-well water and harvests it in April.
Both are following the same national calendar of kharif and rabi, but water decides what each can grow in the second season. What are India’s cropping seasons, and how do farmers combine crops across them?
Why it matters: “Which of these is a rabi crop?” and “what is relay cropping?” are standard Prelims questions. Mains GS-III asks about cropping pattern and its determinants.
The Three Cropping Seasons
India has three main cropping seasons. The names come from Arabic-Persian usage: kharif is linked to autumn (the harvest season) and rabi to spring (its harvest season).
| Season | Sowing | Harvest | What the crop needs | Main crops |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Kharif (खरीफ) | June–July, with the onset of the south-west monsoon | September–October | High temperature and humidity, monsoon rain | Rice, maize, jowar, bajra, ragi, arhar (tur), moong, urad, cotton, jute, groundnut, soybean |
| Rabi (रबी) | October–December | April–June (NCERT); earlier in warmer areas | Cool growing season, warmth at ripening; residual soil moisture, irrigation, winter rain from western disturbances | Wheat, barley, gram, peas, lentil (masur), mustard, linseed |
| Zaid (जायद) | Short summer season between rabi and kharif (roughly March–June) | Before the monsoon | Irrigation, long sunny days | Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables, fodder crops |
- Sugarcane is a long-duration crop that occupies the field for about a year.
- Rice can be grown in more than one season. In Assam, West Bengal and Odisha, three paddy crops are grown in a year: Aus (autumn, pre-monsoon sown), Aman (the main monsoon crop, harvested in winter) and Boro (sown in winter, harvested in summer, needs irrigation).
- In south India, where winters are mild, the kharif–rabi line is blurred; rice can be grown in more than one season with irrigation.
- Moong and some vegetables are grown in both kharif and zaid.
Why the north is a “wheat belt” and Chhattisgarh a “gram belt” in rabi
Rabi depends on stored water. Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh have dense tube wells and canals, plus winter rain from western disturbances, so they grow wheat. In Chhattisgarh, rabi is limited by irrigation, so farmers grow pulses such as gram and lathyrus that live on residual moisture. See Agro-Climatic Zones of Chhattisgarh.
Land Use and Cropping Intensity
The nine-fold land-use classification
Land records in India classify the reporting area into nine categories:
| # | Category | Note |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Forests | As recorded, not actual tree cover |
| 2 | Barren and unculturable land | Mountains, deserts, rock |
| 3 | Land put to non-agricultural uses | Buildings, roads, railways, water bodies |
| 4 | Permanent pastures and grazing land | Common village grazing land |
| 5 | Land under miscellaneous tree crops and groves | Not included in net sown area |
| 6 | Culturable waste land | Left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years |
| 7 | Current fallow | Left uncultivated for one agricultural year or less |
| 8 | Fallow other than current fallow | Left uncultivated for 1 to 5 agricultural years |
| 9 | Net sown area | Area sown at least once in the year |
India’s net sown area is about 140 million hectares, roughly 45% of the reporting area (early 2020s; it has hovered near this level for decades). Because new land is scarce, output must rise through more crops per year and higher yields.
Cropping intensity (फसल सघनता)
$$\text{Cropping intensity} = \frac{\text{Gross cropped area}}{\text{Net sown area}} \times 100$$- Net sown area (NSA): land sown at least once, counted once.
- Gross cropped area (GCA): land sown more than once is counted each time it is sown.
Worked example: a village sows 100 ha in kharif; 50 ha of it is sown again in rabi. NSA = 100 ha, GCA = 150 ha, so cropping intensity = \(150/100 \times 100 = 150\%\).
India’s cropping intensity is roughly 140–155% in recent years (estimates differ by year and source). It is highest where irrigation allows a second and third crop, as in Punjab, and low in rain-fed plateaus, including much of Chhattisgarh, where a single kharif paddy crop is common.
Cropping Systems
| System | What it means | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Monocropping | One crop on the same land year after year | Paddy after paddy in parts of the Chhattisgarh plain |
| Mixed cropping (मिश्रित खेती) | Two or more crops sown together on the same field without a fixed row pattern, mainly as insurance against crop failure | Wheat + gram, or barley + mustard, on rain-fed land |
| Intercropping (अंतरफसल) | Two or more crops grown together in a definite row pattern (for example 1 row : 2 rows) | Soybean + arhar, sugarcane + potato |
| Relay cropping | The second crop is sown into the standing first crop before it is harvested | Utera in Chhattisgarh: lathyrus or linseed into standing paddy |
| Multiple / sequential cropping | Two or more crops grown one after another on the same field in a year | Rice–wheat in the Indo-Gangetic plain |
| Crop rotation (फसल चक्र) | Different crops in succession, often a cereal after a legume, to restore soil fertility and break pest cycles | Wheat after moong |
Types of Farming
| Type | Features | Where |
|---|---|---|
| Primitive subsistence farming | Small patches, simple tools, family labour; includes shifting cultivation (slash and burn) | Hill and forest tracts of the north-east, central India and the Western Ghats |
| Intensive subsistence farming | High inputs of labour, fertiliser and irrigation on small holdings, to feed the family and sell a surplus | Densely populated plains |
| Commercial farming | Crops grown for sale, with HYV seeds, fertilisers and machinery | Punjab and Haryana (rice and wheat), Maharashtra (cotton, sugarcane) |
| Plantation agriculture | A form of commercial farming: a single crop on a large estate, with capital, hired labour and a processing link | Tea (Assam, north Bengal), coffee (Karnataka), rubber (Kerala), sugarcane, banana |
Shifting cultivation: regional names
Shifting cultivation (स्थानांतरी कृषि) clears a forest patch by burning, cultivates it for a few years, and moves on when the soil is exhausted. NCERT lists these regional names:
| Name | Region |
|---|---|
| Jhum (jhumming) | Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland (the north-east) |
| Pamlou | Manipur |
| Dipa | Bastar (Chhattisgarh) and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands |
| Bewar or Dahiya | Madhya Pradesh |
| Podu or Penda | Andhra Pradesh |
| Pama Dabi, Koman or Bringa | Odisha |
| Kumari | Western Ghats |
| Valre or Waltre | South-eastern Rajasthan |
| Khil | Himalayan belt |
| Kuruwa | Jharkhand |
Agro-Climatic Regions
Planning for agriculture uses zones of similar climate, soil and terrain.
| Scheme | Number of zones | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Planning Commission (1989) | 15 agro-climatic regions | Chhattisgarh lies in Region VII, Eastern Plateau and Hills |
| ICAR, National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) | 127 agro-climatic zones | Finer sub-division used for research stations |
| Chhattisgarh (state) | 3 zones | Chhattisgarh Plains, Bastar Plateau, Northern Hills |
Analysis: What Decides a Cropping Pattern? (Mains)
A cropping pattern is the proportion of area under different crops at a point in time. It is shaped by:
- Physical factors: rainfall and its reliability, temperature, soil type, terrain. Black soils favour cotton; clayey lowlands favour paddy.
- Irrigation: the single biggest determinant of whether a second crop is possible.
- Economic factors: MSP and assured procurement (strongly favouring rice and wheat), input subsidies, market access, prices of competing crops.
- Technological factors: HYV seeds, machinery, cold storage and processing.
- Institutional and social factors: holding size, tenancy, credit, food habits.
Policy issue: procurement and subsidised power and water have locked the north-west into rice–wheat, while rain-fed eastern and central India, including Chhattisgarh, remains paddy-dominated with low cropping intensity. Crop diversification towards pulses, oilseeds, millets and horticulture is the common policy answer in both regions.
Memory Tricks
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Mixed cropping: crops together, no row pattern, insurance | vs | Intercropping: crops together in fixed rows, to raise total output |
| Relay cropping: second crop sown into the standing first crop (utera) | vs | Sequential cropping: second crop sown after harvest of the first |
| Net sown area: counted once | vs | Gross cropped area: counted each time sown |
| Current fallow: ≤ 1 year | vs | Culturable waste: > 5 years |
| Dipa: Bastar (Chhattisgarh) | vs | Bewar / Dahiya: Madhya Pradesh |
| Jhum: north-east | vs | Podu / Penda: Andhra Pradesh |
Common Mistakes
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- Rabi crops are sown in ________ to ________ and harvested in ________ to ________.
- The three paddy crops of Assam, West Bengal and Odisha are ________, ________ and ________.
- If net sown area is 80 ha and gross cropped area is 120 ha, cropping intensity is ________.
Answers
- October to December; April to June.
- Aus, Aman and Boro.
- \(120/80 \times 100 = 150\%\).
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Which of the following groups consists only of kharif crops?
- (a) Rice, mustard, cotton
- (b) Jute, soybean, arhar
- (c) Wheat, groundnut, maize
- (d) Gram, bajra, urad
Answer and explanation
Q2. Consider the following statements:
- Zaid crops are grown in the short summer season between the rabi and kharif seasons.
- Winter rainfall from western disturbances benefits the rabi crops of north-west India.
- Sugarcane is a zaid crop that is harvested within three months of sowing.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
Q3. Match List I (regional name of shifting cultivation) with List II (region):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Jhum | 1. Bastar, Chhattisgarh |
| B. Dipa | 2. Madhya Pradesh |
| C. Bewar | 3. North-eastern states |
| D. Kumari | 4. Western Ghats |
- (a) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
- (b) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
- (c) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
- (d) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
Answer and explanation
Q4. A farmer broadcasts linseed seed into a standing paddy crop about two weeks before the paddy harvest. This practice is an example of:
- (a) Mixed cropping
- (b) Intercropping
- (c) Relay cropping
- (d) Crop rotation
Answer and explanation
Q5. Land that has been left uncultivated for more than five agricultural years is classified as:
- (a) Current fallow
- (b) Fallow other than current fallow
- (c) Barren and unculturable land
- (d) Culturable waste land
Answer and explanation
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (60 words) Distinguish between mixed cropping and intercropping with one example each.
Model answer outline
- Mixed cropping: two or more crops sown together without a row pattern; aim is insurance against failure on rain-fed land; example wheat + gram.
- Intercropping: crops in a fixed row ratio; aim is higher total output and efficient use of light, water and nutrients; example soybean + arhar.
- One line: both raise resilience, but intercropping allows separate management and harvest of each crop.
Q2. (150–200 words) What factors determine the cropping pattern of a region? Why does Chhattisgarh have low cropping intensity despite good rainfall?
Model answer outline
- Intro: Cropping pattern means the share of area under different crops; cropping intensity measures how many times land is sown in a year.
- Determinants: physical (rainfall, temperature, soils, terrain); irrigation; economic (MSP and procurement, input subsidies, markets); technology (HYV, machinery); institutional (holding size, credit, tenancy).
- Chhattisgarh case:
- Rain falls mostly in June–September, so kharif paddy is the natural crop.
- Only about a third of the sown area is irrigated, so a second crop is limited.
- Assured paddy procurement at a high price favours paddy over other crops.
- Upland soils (Bhata, Matasi) hold little moisture after the monsoon.
- Free grazing after harvest damages rabi and utera crops.
- Way forward: protective irrigation, revival of utera, rabi pulses and oilseeds, millets on uplands.
- Conclusion: water and price signals, more than rainfall alone, decide how often land is cropped.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Kharif | Sown June–July; harvested Sept–Oct; rice, maize, millets, arhar, cotton, jute, soybean, groundnut |
| Rabi | Sown Oct–Dec; harvested Apr–Jun; wheat, barley, gram, peas, lentil, mustard, linseed |
| Zaid | Summer, between rabi and kharif; melons, cucumber, vegetables, fodder |
| Rabi helper | Western disturbances (winter rain in north-west India) |
| Three paddy crops | Aus, Aman, Boro (Assam, West Bengal, Odisha) |
| Cropping intensity | GCA ÷ NSA × 100; never below 100% |
| Net sown area | About 140 million ha (early 2020s) |
| Fallow classes | Current ≤ 1 yr; other 1–5 yr; culturable waste > 5 yr |
| Relay cropping | Sowing into a standing crop (utera) |
| Shifting cultivation names | Jhum (NE), Dipa (Bastar), Bewar/Dahiya (MP), Podu/Penda (AP), Kumari (W. Ghats), Khil (Himalaya), Kuruwa (Jharkhand) |
| Agro-climatic regions | 15 (Planning Commission, 1989); 127 zones (ICAR NARP); CG in Region VII |
Key Takeaways
- Kharif rides the monsoon, rabi lives on stored water and winter rain, zaid fills the summer gap.
- Water, more than rain, decides whether a second crop is possible, which is why cropping intensity varies so much between Punjab and Chhattisgarh.
- Cropping intensity = GCA ÷ NSA × 100 and is always 100% or more.
- Relay cropping (utera) is Chhattisgarh’s low-cost way of adding a rabi pulse.
- Learn the NCERT list of shifting-cultivation names, especially Dipa for Bastar.
What’s Next
- Major Crops of India: which crop grows where, and why
- Irrigation in India: the water that makes rabi possible
- Climate of India: the monsoon behind the kharif calendar
- Agriculture and Irrigation of Chhattisgarh: the state’s own cropping pattern