Geography
Mineral and Energy Resources of India
Conventional Energy: Coal, Oil, Gas, Hydro and Nuclear
Coalfields, oilfields, refineries, gas pipelines, thermal, hydro and nuclear power in India with 2025-26 figures for CGPSC Prelims and Mains.
Prerequisites
- Metallic Minerals of India: the rock systems (Gondwana, Tertiary) that hold coal and oil.
- Drainage System of India: the river valleys where coalfields lie and where dams generate hydropower.
- Power Generation in Chhattisgarh: Korba, Sipat and Hasdeo Bango, the state version of this page.
The Hook: Korba Lights Up Mumbai
Connect
A coal train leaves Gevra in Korba every few minutes. Some of that coal is burnt next door in NTPC’s Korba plant, and the electricity flows through the national grid to cities as far away as Mumbai and Delhi. The petrol in a Raipur motorbike, on the other hand, is almost certainly refined from imported crude.
India has plenty of coal, some hydropower, a small nuclear fleet and very little oil. Where are these conventional sources located, and why is India’s energy security a coal-and-import story?
Why it matters: Prelims asks coalfield–river and oilfield–state pairs, the “first” oil well and refinery, nuclear plant locations and coal types. Mains GS-III asks about energy security, coal dependence and the energy transition.
Conventional vs Non-conventional
| Conventional (परंपरागत) | Non-conventional (गैर-परंपरागत) |
|---|---|
| Coal, petroleum, natural gas, large hydro, nuclear (and traditional firewood and dung cake) | Solar, wind, biomass and biogas, small hydro, geothermal, tidal and wave, green hydrogen |
| Mostly non-renewable (hydro is the exception) | Renewable |
| Polluting (fossil fuels) | Cleaner |
Large hydro is conventional by technology but renewable by source. Since March 2019, India counts large hydro (above 25 MW) as renewable energy too. See Non-conventional Energy.
Coal (कोयला)
India is the world’s second-largest coal producer (after China). Coal is the backbone of the power sector, which takes about four-fifths of coal dispatches.
| Indicator | Figure |
|---|---|
| Production FY 2024-25 | 1,047.6 million tonnes, a record; India first crossed 1 billion tonnes in March 2025 |
| Captive and commercial mines, FY 2025-26 | 210.46 MT, crossing 200 MT for the first time |
| Main producer | Coal India Ltd (1975, Kolkata) and its subsidiaries such as SECL (Bilaspur), MCL, CCL, BCCL; Singareni Collieries (Telangana) |
| Leading producing state | Odisha, then Chhattisgarh (FY 2024-25) |
| Largest resources | Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh |
Types of coal
| Type | Carbon content | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Anthracite | Highest (about 80–95%) | Best quality, hard; very little in India (Jammu and Kashmir) |
| Bituminous | Medium-high | Most Indian coal; coking variety is used in steel (Jharia) |
| Lignite (brown coal) | Low, high moisture | Neyveli (Tamil Nadu), plus Rajasthan (Barsingsar), Gujarat |
| Peat | Lowest | First stage of coal formation |
Gondwana and Tertiary coal
| Gondwana coal | Tertiary coal | |
|---|---|---|
| Age | About 200–250 million years | About 55 million years |
| Share | About 98% of India’s coal | About 2% |
| Location | River valleys of the Peninsula: Damodar, Son, Mahanadi, Godavari, Wardha | North-east: Assam (Makum), Meghalaya, Arunachal, Nagaland; lignite in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Rajasthan |
| Quality | Bituminous, metallurgical grades | Low carbon, high sulphur and moisture |
Major coalfields by river valley
| Valley | Coalfields | State |
|---|---|---|
| Damodar | Jharia (largest store of coking coal), Raniganj (oldest: mining from 1774), Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura | Jharkhand, West Bengal |
| Son | Singrauli | MP–UP border |
| Mahanadi | Talcher, Ib valley (Odisha); Korba, Mand-Raigarh, Hasdeo-Arand (Chhattisgarh) | Odisha, Chhattisgarh |
| Godavari | Singareni | Telangana |
| Wardha | Chandrapur, Wardha valley | Maharashtra |
Coal policy timeline: nationalisation in 1971–73, Coal India formed in 1975, captive blocks cancelled by the Supreme Court in 2014 and re-allotted through auctions under the Coal Mines (Special Provisions) Act, 2015, and commercial coal mining opened to private firms in 2020.
Petroleum (पेट्रोलियम) and Natural Gas
Petroleum occurs in anticlines and fault traps of Tertiary sedimentary rocks, both on land and offshore.
Oilfields
| Region | Fields | Key facts |
|---|---|---|
| Assam | Digboi, Naharkatiya, Moran-Hugrijan | Oil struck at Digboi in 1889; the Digboi refinery (1901) is India’s oldest working refinery |
| Gujarat | Ankleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Lunej (Cambay basin) | Developed by ONGC from the 1960s |
| Mumbai High (offshore) | Arabian Sea, off Mumbai | Discovered 1974; long India’s largest producing field |
| Rajasthan | Barmer (Mangala, Bhagyam, Aishwariya) | Discovered by Cairn in 2004; a major onshore producer |
| Krishna–Godavari (KG) basin | Offshore Andhra Pradesh | Mainly gas (Reliance KG-D6, from 2002 discovery); also ONGC deepwater |
| Cauvery basin | Tamil Nadu | Smaller fields |
Import dependence
| Indicator | Figure |
|---|---|
| Domestic crude production | About 28 MMT in 2025-26, down from 29.7 MMT in 2021-22 (ageing fields) |
| Crude import dependence | Record 88.7% in 2025-26 (88.2% in 2024-25) |
| Refining | India is a large net exporter of petroleum products. Jamnagar (Gujarat, Reliance) is the world’s largest single-site refining complex |
| Strategic Petroleum Reserves (ISPRL) | Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru, Padur: total 5.33 MMT of crude |
Notable refineries: Digboi (1901, oldest), Guwahati (first public-sector refinery), Barauni, Koyali, Mathura, Panipat, Paradip, Bina, Numaligarh, Bathinda, Kochi, Visakhapatnam, Jamnagar.
Natural gas (प्राकृतिक गैस)
- A cleaner fuel; also a feedstock for fertilisers (urea) and petrochemicals. Used as CNG in transport and PNG in homes.
- Sources: KG basin, Mumbai High, Assam, Tripura, Gujarat. Large quantities are imported as LNG at terminals such as Dahej and Hazira (Gujarat).
- Pipelines: the Hazira–Vijaipur–Jagdishpur (HVJ) pipeline built by GAIL in the 1980s; Pradhan Mantri Urja Ganga (Jagdishpur–Haldia–Bokaro–Dhamra) for the east.
- Policy target: raise the share of gas in India’s primary energy mix to 15% by 2030 (about 6% today).
- Coal bed methane (CBM): Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Sohagpur. Shale gas prospects in the Cambay and KG basins.
Electricity: Thermal, Hydro and Nuclear
Installed capacity (July 2026): about 552 GW in total, of which non-fossil sources are about 300 GW (over 54%). Coal still produces most of the electricity actually generated, because coal plants run round the clock while solar and wind are intermittent.
Thermal power (ताप विद्युत)
- Uses coal, lignite, gas or diesel. Coal plants are sited either at the pithead (Korba, Singrauli, Talcher) or near load centres and ports (imported coal at Mundra).
- NTPC (1975) is India’s largest power utility. Its largest station is Vindhyachal (Singrauli, MP), 4,760 MW.
- Chhattisgarh: Sipat (2,980 MW), Korba (2,600 MW) and Lara (1,600 MW) of NTPC, plus state plants at Korba and Marwa. See Power Generation.
Hydroelectric power (जल विद्युत)
India’s hydro capacity (large and small) was about 57 GW in July 2026. The best untapped potential is in the Himalaya, especially Arunachal Pradesh.
| Project | River | State | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bhakra Nangal | Sutlej | Himachal Pradesh–Punjab | Multipurpose; Gobind Sagar reservoir |
| Tehri | Bhagirathi | Uttarakhand | India’s tallest dam; hydro complex with pumped storage |
| Nathpa Jhakri | Sutlej | Himachal Pradesh | 1,500 MW, SJVN |
| Koyna | Koyna (Krishna basin) | Maharashtra | Western Ghats; tail-water flows west |
| Sardar Sarovar | Narmada | Gujarat | Multipurpose |
| Srisailam, Nagarjuna Sagar | Krishna | Andhra Pradesh–Telangana | |
| Hirakud | Mahanadi | Odisha | Among the longest dams in the world |
| Hasdeo Bango | Hasdeo (Mahanadi basin) | Chhattisgarh | 120 MW, the state’s largest hydel station |
Pumped storage (pump water uphill when power is cheap, release it at peak) is now promoted to balance solar and wind.
Nuclear power (परमाणु ऊर्जा)
As of July 2026: 24 reactors with 8,780 MW at seven sites, run by NPCIL. About ten more units (roughly 8,000 MW) are under construction.
| Site | State | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Tarapur | Maharashtra | India’s first nuclear power station (1969); boiling water reactors |
| Rawatbhata (RAPS) | Rajasthan | PHWRs on the Chambal |
| Kalpakkam (MAPS) | Tamil Nadu | Also the PFBR (first criticality 6 April 2026) |
| Narora | Uttar Pradesh | On the Ganga |
| Kakrapar | Gujarat | First indigenous 700 MW PHWRs |
| Kaiga | Karnataka | |
| Kudankulam | Tamil Nadu | Largest: Russian-designed VVER units of 1,000 MW each |
Upcoming sites include Gorakhpur (Haryana) and Mahi Banswara (Rajasthan).
Nuclear policy (2025–26)
- Nuclear Energy Mission (Union Budget 2025-26): target of 100 GW of nuclear capacity by 2047, with a push for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs).
- SHANTI Act, 2025 (Sustainable Harnessing and Advancement of Nuclear Energy for Transforming India): passed by Parliament in December 2025 (assent 20 December 2025). It replaces the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010, and opens civil nuclear power to qualified private companies.
Analysis for Mains: Coal Dependence and Energy Security
- Why coal still dominates: abundant domestic reserves, cheap pithead power, round-the-clock supply, and an existing fleet of plants. It also gives energy security against import shocks.
- Costs of coal: air pollution (Korba, Singrauli and Talcher are well-known pollution hotspots), fly ash, water use, displacement and forest loss (Hasdeo Arand), and CO₂ emissions.
- Oil vulnerability: about 89% of crude is imported, so price shocks and West Asian conflicts hit inflation and the current account deficit.
- Transition path: India has kept coal for base load while adding renewables fast. Non-fossil capacity crossed 50% of the total in June 2025, five years ahead of the NDC target. Next steps are storage, pumped hydro, nuclear expansion, gas as a bridge fuel and a just transition for coal regions.
- Chhattisgarh angle: as India’s second-largest coal producer and a power-surplus state, Chhattisgarh gains revenue and jobs from coal but bears the pollution and displacement. A just transition is a real question for Korba.
Memory Tricks
Coalfields by river: 'Daddy Sings Mahan Gaana Wonderfully'
Damodar (Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro) · Son (Singrauli) · Mahanadi (Talcher, Korba) · Godavari (Singareni) · Wardha (Chandrapur)
Oil 'firsts' in order: 1889 → 1901 → 1974 → 2004
Digboi oil (1889) → Digboi refinery (1901) → Mumbai High (1974) → Barmer (2004). Assam first, then the sea, then the desert.
Seven nuclear sites: 'Tara Rawat Kalpana Narora Kakra Kaiga Kudan'
Tarapur (Maharashtra, first) · Rawatbhata (Rajasthan) · Kalpakkam (TN) · Narora (UP) · Kakrapar (Gujarat) · Kaiga (Karnataka) · Kudankulam (TN, largest). Two of seven are in Tamil Nadu.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Jharia: largest coking coal store | vs | Raniganj: oldest coalfield (1774) |
| Gondwana coal: 98%, Peninsula | vs | Tertiary coal: north-east, high sulphur |
| Neyveli: lignite (Tamil Nadu) | vs | Singareni: bituminous coal (Telangana) |
| Digboi: oldest refinery (1901) | vs | Guwahati: first public-sector refinery |
| Mumbai High: offshore oil (1974) | vs | KG-D6: offshore gas, east coast |
| Tarapur: first nuclear station (1969) | vs | Kudankulam: largest, Russian VVER |
| Vindhyachal: largest NTPC thermal station | vs | Sipat: largest station in Chhattisgarh |
| Installed capacity: non-fossil over 50% | vs | Generation: coal still the largest share |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Most of India’s electricity now comes from renewables.” False. Non-fossil sources are over half of installed capacity (2026), but coal still generates most of the electricity because of higher plant load factors.
- “Chhattisgarh is India’s largest coal producer.” False. Odisha is first; Chhattisgarh second (FY 2024-25).
- “Tertiary coal is of better quality than Gondwana coal.” False. It is younger, with lower carbon and higher sulphur.
- “Tarapur is India’s largest nuclear plant.” False. It is the oldest; Kudankulam is the largest.
- “India imports about half of its crude oil.” False. Import dependence is close to 89% (2025-26).
- “Digboi was India’s first public-sector refinery.” False. Digboi is the oldest refinery (built by the Assam Oil Company); Guwahati was the first in the public sector.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- About 98% of India’s coal reserves belong to the ________ system.
- India’s oldest working oil refinery is at ________ (Assam).
- India’s first nuclear power station was commissioned in 1969 at ________.
Answers
- Gondwana.
- Digboi (1901).
- Tarapur (Maharashtra).
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements:
- India’s coal production crossed one billion tonnes for the first time in 2024-25.
- Tertiary coal of north-east India has lower sulphur content than Gondwana coal.
- Jharia coalfield is the most important source of coking coal in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 3 only. India’s production reached 1,047.6 MT in FY 2024-25, crossing a billion tonnes in March 2025. Statement 2 is reversed: Tertiary coal has higher sulphur and lower carbon. Jharia in the Damodar valley holds India’s largest store of coking coal.
Q2. Match List I (Coalfield) with List II (River valley):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Talcher | 1. Godavari |
| B. Singareni | 2. Damodar |
| C. Raniganj | 3. Son |
| D. Singrauli | 4. Mahanadi |
- (a) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
- (b) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
- (c) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
- (d) A-1, B-4, C-3, D-2
Answer and explanation
(a) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3. Talcher (Odisha) is in the Mahanadi basin, Singareni (Telangana) in the Godavari valley, Raniganj (West Bengal) in the Damodar valley, and Singrauli on the MP–UP border in the Son valley.
Q3. Which one of the following pairs of nuclear power stations and states is not correctly matched?
- (a) Kakrapar : Gujarat
- (b) Kaiga : Karnataka
- (c) Narora : Rajasthan
- (d) Kudankulam : Tamil Nadu
Answer and explanation
(c) Narora : Rajasthan. Narora is in Uttar Pradesh, on the Ganga. Rajasthan’s nuclear station is at Rawatbhata (RAPS) near Kota.
Q4. India’s Strategic Petroleum Reserves are located at:
- (a) Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru and Padur
- (b) Jamnagar, Kochi and Paradip
- (c) Digboi, Barauni and Haldia
- (d) Mumbai, Chennai and Kandla
Answer and explanation
(a) Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru and Padur. These underground rock caverns, run by ISPRL, hold 5.33 MMT of crude in total. Further phases (such as Chandikhol in Odisha and a Padur expansion) are planned.
Q5. Which one of the following correctly describes India’s power sector as of 2026?
- (a) Non-fossil sources account for more than half of installed capacity, while coal still produces most of the electricity generated.
- (b) Non-fossil sources produce more than half of the electricity generated.
- (c) Nuclear power provides about one-tenth of installed capacity.
- (d) Large hydro is the largest renewable source by installed capacity.
Answer and explanation
(a). Non-fossil capacity was about 300 GW of 552 GW (over 54%) in July 2026, but coal plants still generate most electricity. Nuclear is about 8.78 GW, under 2% of capacity, so (c) is wrong. Solar (about 165 GW) is far larger than hydro (about 57 GW), so (d) is wrong.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) “Coal will remain the mainstay of India’s energy security for the next two decades.” Critically examine.
Model answer outline
- Intro: India is the world’s second-largest coal producer (1,047.6 MT in FY 2024-25), and coal still generates most of its electricity.
- For the statement:
- Large domestic reserves (Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh) and low import exposure compared with oil (~89% imported).
- Base-load reliability while solar and wind are intermittent and storage is costly.
- Jobs and revenue in coal states; Coal India, SECL and DMF funds.
- Against or qualifications:
- Non-fossil capacity crossed 50% in June 2025; target 500 GW by 2030; net zero 2070.
- Pollution, health costs, water stress, forest loss (Hasdeo Arand).
- Falling solar and battery costs; stranded-asset risk.
- Nuclear expansion (100 GW by 2047, SHANTI Act 2025) and pumped storage as alternatives.
- Chhattisgarh angle: Korba and Raigarh show both the economic dependence and the pollution burden; a just transition for coal districts is needed.
- Conclusion: Coal will remain a bridge, not the destination; cleaner coal technology, storage and a just transition must go together.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Coal production | 1,047.6 MT (FY 2024-25); crossed 1 bn t in March 2025; world’s 2nd largest producer |
| Leading coal states | Production: Odisha, then Chhattisgarh; resources: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh |
| Coal systems | Gondwana ~98% (Damodar, Son, Mahanadi, Godavari, Wardha); Tertiary in the north-east |
| Jharia / Raniganj | Coking coal / oldest (1774) |
| Lignite | Neyveli (Tamil Nadu) |
| Oil firsts | Digboi oil 1889, refinery 1901; Mumbai High 1974; Barmer 2004 |
| Crude import dependence | 88.7% (2025-26); domestic output ~28 MMT |
| SPR | Visakhapatnam, Mangaluru, Padur: 5.33 MMT |
| Gas | HVJ pipeline (GAIL); Urja Ganga; target 15% of energy mix by 2030 |
| Installed power | ~552 GW (July 2026); non-fossil ~300 GW, over 54% |
| Largest thermal | Vindhyachal, 4,760 MW (NTPC) |
| Hydro | ~57 GW (large + small); Bhakra, Tehri, Nathpa Jhakri, Koyna, Hirakud |
| Nuclear | 24 reactors, 8,780 MW, 7 sites (July 2026); Tarapur first (1969); Kudankulam largest |
| Nuclear policy | 100 GW by 2047; SHANTI Act 2025; PFBR criticality 6 Apr 2026 |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- India’s energy base is coal-heavy and oil-poor: a billion tonnes of coal a year, but about 89% of crude oil imported.
- Coalfields follow the Gondwana river valleys: Damodar, Son, Mahanadi, Godavari and Wardha. Korba is in the Mahanadi group.
- Oil and gas come from Tertiary basins: Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai High, Barmer and the KG basin.
- Capacity is now majority non-fossil, but coal still generates most electricity.
- Nuclear is small (8.78 GW) but is being opened up: SHANTI Act 2025, 100 GW by 2047, PFBR criticality in 2026.
What’s Next
- Non-conventional Energy: solar, wind, bioenergy, green hydrogen and India’s climate targets
- Power Generation in Chhattisgarh: Korba, Sipat, Lara and Hasdeo Bango
- Industries and Transport: coal and power as inputs to industry
- Environment and Ecology: pollution and climate dimensions of fossil fuels
Advertisement