History
Bhakti and Sufi Movements
Origins of Bhakti: Alvars, Nayanars and the Acharyas
Roots of bhakti, the 12 Alvars and 63 Nayanars, the acharyas from Shankara to Chaitanya and Basava's Virashaiva movement, for CGPSC Prelims and Mains.
Prerequisites
- Jainism, Buddhism and Religious Movements — the earlier protest against ritual that bhakti answered in its own way
- Early Medieval India — the Pallava and Chola kingdoms in which the Tamil saints sang
- Indian Philosophy — Vedanta, the school that the acharyas reinterpreted
The Hook: A Birth in the Forest of Champaran
Connect
Near Raipur, in the forest village of Champaran (चंपारण), pilgrims of the Pushtimarg tradition, many from Gujarat, come to a shrine that marks the birthplace of Vallabhacharya (वल्लभाचार्य), born there in 1479. He founded the Pushtimarg and a philosophy called Shuddhadvaita.
Why does a Telugu Brahmin family’s son, born in Chhattisgarh and remembered in Braj, matter for an exam? Because he is one link in a long chain of acharyas (teachers) who gave bhakti a philosophy. That chain began not in the north but in the temple towns of Tamil Nadu, more than 700 years before Vallabha. How did a movement of Tamil hymn-singers become an all-India religion of devotion?
Why it matters: “Match the acharya with his philosophy” is a classic Prelims format. Mains asks you to trace the origin and spread of bhakti.
What Is Bhakti?
Bhakti (भक्ति) means loving devotion to a personal god. The devotee seeks union with or closeness to God through love and surrender, not through sacrifice, ritual or learning alone.
| Root | What it contributed |
|---|---|
| Shvetashvatara Upanishad | One of the earliest uses of the word “bhakti” for devotion to God |
| Bhagavad Gita | Bhakti as one of three paths to liberation, with jnana (knowledge) and karma (action); surrender to Krishna |
| Puranas, especially the Bhagavata Purana | Stories of Vishnu’s avatars and of Krishna’s childhood that later saints sang about |
| Tamil devotional poetry | The emotional, sung, temple-centred bhakti of the Alvars and Nayanars |
Two forms of devotion you must know from the start:
- Saguna (सगुण): God with attributes and form, such as Rama or Krishna. Worship of images is accepted.
- Nirguna (निर्गुण): God without attributes or form. The divine name is enough; images and rituals are rejected.
The Tamil Saints: Alvars and Nayanars (c. 6th–9th centuries)
Bhakti as a mass movement began in Tamil Nadu under the Pallavas and Pandyas. The saints moved from temple to temple singing in Tamil, not Sanskrit. They came from many castes, including those treated as “low” and “untouchable”.
| Feature | Alvars (आलवार) | Nayanars (नयनार) |
|---|---|---|
| God | Vishnu (Vaishnava) | Shiva (Shaiva) |
| Traditional number | 12 | 63 |
| Hymn collection | Nalayira Divya Prabandham (“4,000 sacred compositions”), compiled by Nathamuni | Tevaram (hymns of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar), part of the Tirumurai canon |
| Woman saint | Andal (Kodhai), the only woman Alvar; Tiruppavai | Karaikkal Ammaiyar |
| Saints from marginal castes | Tiruppan Alvar (Panar community) | Nandanar |
| Most revered / key text | Nammalvar, Tiruvaymoli | Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar (12th century) tells the lives of the 63 |
Why the Tamil saints mattered:
- They took religion out of the Sanskrit-speaking elite and into the vernacular.
- They welcomed women and lower castes as saints.
- Their hymns made the great temples of the south (Srirangam, Chidambaram) centres of pilgrimage. By tradition, the Shaiva canon was compiled in the Chola period.
- They also competed with Jainism and Buddhism, which declined in the Tamil country in this period.
Manikkavasagar is not one of the 63
Manikkavasagar, author of the Shaiva classic Tiruvasagam, is revered alongside the Nayanars but is not counted among the 63. Examiners like this kind of detail.
The Acharyas: Bhakti Gets a Philosophy
From the 8th century, Vedanta teachers wrote commentaries on the Brahma Sutras, Upanishads and Gita. Shankara’s Advaita (non-dualism) held that the individual soul and Brahman are identical and the world is maya. This left little room for devotion to a personal god. The Vaishnava acharyas who followed each answered Shankara by giving the devotee and God a real relationship.
| Acharya | Dates (traditional) | Philosophy | Sect / sampradaya | Key points |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shankaracharya (शंकराचार्य) | 8th century (often given as 788–820) | Advaita (non-dualism) | Smarta; founded four mathas | Born at Kaladi (Kerala). Mathas at Sringeri (south), Dwarka (west), Puri (east), Jyotirmath (north). A path of knowledge, not a bhakti acharya |
| Ramanuja (रामानुज) | 1017–1137 | Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) | Sri sampradaya (Sri Vaishnavism) | Wrote the Sri Bhashya; centre Srirangam; drew on the Alvars’ hymns |
| Madhvacharya (मध्वाचार्य) | 1238–1317 | Dvaita (dualism) | Brahma sampradaya | Centre Udupi (Karnataka); God and soul eternally distinct |
| Nimbarka (निम्बार्क) | Dates disputed (often placed in the 12th–13th centuries) | Dvaitadvaita (dualistic non-dualism, a form of Bhedabheda) | Kumara (Sanaka) sampradaya | Worship of Radha-Krishna; associated with Vrindavan |
| Vallabhacharya (वल्लभाचार्य) | 1479–1531 | Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) | Rudra sampradaya; Pushtimarg (“path of grace”) | Born at Champaran, Chhattisgarh; worship of child Krishna (Shrinathji); his son Vitthalnath organised the Ashtachhap poets |
| Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (चैतन्य महाप्रभु) | 1486–1534 | Achintya Bhedabheda (inconceivable difference-and-non-difference) | Gaudiya Vaishnavism | Bengal and Puri; ecstatic sankirtan (congregational singing) of Krishna’s name |
The four Vaishnava sampradayas
Sri — Ramanuja · Brahma — Madhva · Rudra — Vishnuswami, later Vallabha · Kumara (Sanaka) — Nimbarka.
Chaitanya’s Gaudiya tradition traces itself to Madhva’s line.
Chhattisgarh angle: Vallabhacharya at Champaran
Vallabha’s family, Telugu Brahmins settled at Varanasi, fled the city while his mother was expecting. According to tradition he was born prematurely in the forest of Champaran (Raipur district) in 1479. Champaran is today a pilgrimage centre of the Pushtimarg community, with shrines (baithaks) linked to Vallabha. In a Mains answer on bhakti, one line on Champaran shows local awareness.
Basava and the Virashaiva (Lingayat) Movement (12th century)
| Point | Detail |
|---|---|
| Leader | Basava (Basavanna, बसवण्णा) |
| Political setting | Minister at the court of Bijjala II, a Kalachuri king at Kalyana (Karnataka) |
| Followers | Virashaivas or Lingayats (लिंगायत): devotees of Shiva who wear an ishtalinga on the body |
| Literature | Vachanas — short prose-poems in Kannada. Other vachana poets: Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi (a woman saint) |
| Institution | Anubhava Mantapa — a hall for spiritual discussion open to all, often described as a forum of debate |
| Teachings | Rejected caste, temple worship and Brahmanical ritual; dignity of labour (kayaka); questioned rules of pollution |
The Lingayats are the most radical of the early bhakti groups. They show that bhakti was not only about devotion but also about social protest.
Memory Tricks
Acharyas in order: 'Shankar Ram Madhav Nimbu Vallabh Chaitanya'
Read the philosophies as a slide from one to two:
- Shankara — Advaita: “One” (only Brahman)
- Ramanuja — Vishisht-advaita: “One, but qualified” (souls are its parts)
- Madhva — Dvaita: “Two” (always separate)
- Nimbarka — Dvaita-advaita: “Both two and one”
- Vallabha — Shuddh-advaita: “Pure one” (the world is real, not maya)
- Chaitanya — Achintya Bhedabheda: “Can’t even think it” (inconceivable)
Alvars vs Nayanars
Alvars = Avatar god (Vishnu), 12 like the 12 months.
Nayanars = Nataraja (Shiva), 63.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Alvars — Vishnu; 12; Divya Prabandham | vs | Nayanars — Shiva; 63; Tevaram, Periya Puranam |
| Vishishtadvaita — Ramanuja | vs | Shuddhadvaita — Vallabha |
| Dvaita — Madhva | vs | Dvaitadvaita — Nimbarka |
| Champaran (Chhattisgarh) — Vallabhacharya’s birthplace | vs | Champaran (Bihar) — Gandhi’s indigo satyagraha, 1917 |
| Kalachuris of Kalyana — Bijjala II, Basava’s patron (Karnataka) | vs | Kalachuris of Ratanpur — rulers of Chhattisgarh (Kalachuri dynasty) |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Shankaracharya founded the Bhakti movement.” False. Bhakti as a mass movement began with the Alvars and Nayanars. Shankara taught Advaita, a path of knowledge.
- “Vallabhacharya propounded Vishishtadvaita.” False. Vishishtadvaita is Ramanuja’s. Vallabha’s is Shuddhadvaita.
- “Andal was a Nayanar.” False. Andal was an Alvar (Vaishnava). The woman Nayanar is Karaikkal Ammaiyar.
- “Basava supported temple worship and caste rules.” False. The Virashaivas rejected both.
- “Vallabhacharya was born in Champaran, Bihar.” False. His birthplace is Champaran near Raipur, Chhattisgarh.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The 12 Vaishnava saints of the Tamil country are called the ______.
- Ramanuja’s philosophy is called ______.
- Basava was a minister at the court of the Kalachuri king ______.
Answers
- Alvars.
- Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism).
- Bijjala II, at Kalyana.
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Match List I (Acharya) with List II (Philosophy):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Ramanuja | 1. Dvaita |
| B. Madhvacharya | 2. Shuddhadvaita |
| C. Nimbarka | 3. Vishishtadvaita |
| D. Vallabhacharya | 4. Dvaitadvaita |
- (a) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
- (b) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
- (c) A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
- (d) A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
Answer and explanation
(a) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2. Ramanuja taught qualified non-dualism (Vishishtadvaita), Madhva dualism (Dvaita), Nimbarka dualistic non-dualism (Dvaitadvaita) and Vallabha pure non-dualism (Shuddhadvaita).
Q2. Consider the following statements:
- The Nalayira Divya Prabandham is a collection of hymns of the Nayanars.
- Andal was the only woman among the twelve Alvars.
- The Periya Puranam, which narrates the lives of the 63 Nayanars, was written by Sekkizhar.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 2 and 3 only. Statement 1 is wrong: the Divya Prabandham is the Alvars’ (Vaishnava) collection, compiled by Nathamuni. The Nayanars’ hymns are in the Tevaram and the Tirumurai. Statements 2 and 3 are correct.
Q3. Vallabhacharya, the founder of the Pushtimarg, was born at:
- (a) Champaran in Bihar
- (b) Rajim in Chhattisgarh
- (c) Champaran in Chhattisgarh
- (d) Udupi in Karnataka
Answer and explanation
(c) Champaran in Chhattisgarh. By tradition Vallabha was born in 1479 in the forest of Champaran near Raipur. Option (a) is the trap: Champaran in Bihar is famous for Gandhi’s 1917 satyagraha. Udupi is Madhvacharya’s centre.
Q4. Which of the following was not a feature of the Virashaiva movement led by Basava?
- (a) Composition of vachanas in Kannada
- (b) Rejection of caste distinctions
- (c) Emphasis on elaborate temple rituals conducted by Brahmin priests
- (d) Wearing of the linga on the body
Answer and explanation
(c). The Virashaivas rejected temple worship and Brahmanical ritual. They wore the ishtalinga, composed vachanas in Kannada and opposed caste.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) Trace the origin of the Bhakti movement in South India and explain how it acquired a philosophical basis.
Model answer outline
- Intro: Bhakti, loving devotion to a personal god, has roots in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Gita and the Puranas, but became a mass movement in the Tamil country from about the 6th century.
- Body:
- Alvars (12, Vishnu) and Nayanars (63, Shiva) sang in Tamil, moved between temples and drew followers from all castes, including women (Andal, Karaikkal Ammaiyar).
- Their hymns were compiled as the Divya Prabandham and the Tevaram/Tirumurai, making temples centres of pilgrimage.
- They challenged the hold of Jainism and Buddhism and of Sanskrit ritual.
- Philosophical basis: in reply to Shankara’s Advaita, the acharyas gave devotion a theory: Ramanuja (Vishishtadvaita), Madhva (Dvaita), Nimbarka (Dvaitadvaita), Vallabha (Shuddhadvaita).
- Radical strand: Basava’s Virashaivas rejected caste and temple worship.
- Chhattisgarh angle: Vallabhacharya, the last of the great Vaishnava acharyas, was born at Champaran near Raipur (1479).
- Conclusion: Tamil emotion plus Vedantic philosophy prepared bhakti to travel north and become an all-India movement.
Q2. (60 words) What was the Anubhava Mantapa?
Model answer outline
A hall for spiritual and social discussion associated with Basava at Kalyana in the 12th century. Saints of all castes and both sexes, such as Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi, are said to have taken part. It symbolised the Virashaiva rejection of caste and is often described as an early forum of open debate.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Alvars | 12; Vishnu; Nalayira Divya Prabandham (compiled by Nathamuni) |
| Nayanars | 63; Shiva; Tevaram; Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar |
| Women saints | Andal (Alvar); Karaikkal Ammaiyar (Nayanar); Akka Mahadevi (Virashaiva) |
| Shankara | Advaita; Kaladi; four mathas (Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri, Jyotirmath) |
| Ramanuja | Vishishtadvaita; Sri Bhashya; Srirangam; Sri sampradaya |
| Madhva | Dvaita; Udupi; Brahma sampradaya |
| Nimbarka | Dvaitadvaita; Radha-Krishna; Kumara sampradaya |
| Vallabha | Shuddhadvaita; Pushtimarg; born Champaran (Chhattisgarh), 1479 |
| Chaitanya | Achintya Bhedabheda; Gaudiya Vaishnavism; sankirtan |
| Basava | 12th century; minister of Bijjala II (Kalyana); Lingayats; vachanas; Anubhava Mantapa |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Bhakti as a mass movement began with the Tamil Alvars (Vishnu, 12) and Nayanars (Shiva, 63), who sang in the vernacular and welcomed all castes.
- The acharyas answered Shankara’s Advaita and gave devotion a philosophy: learn the acharya–philosophy–sampradaya table by heart.
- Vallabhacharya was born at Champaran, Chhattisgarh (1479) and founded the Pushtimarg.
- Basava’s Virashaivas were the most radical early group, rejecting caste and temple ritual.
What’s Next
- Bhakti Saints of North, West and East India — how the movement spread from the south across India
- Sufi Orders (Silsilas) in India — the parallel Islamic devotional stream
- Bhakti and Sufi Movements — Quick Revision — the whole chapter on one page
- Indian Art, Literature and Culture — temples and literature shaped by bhakti
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