History
Bhakti and Sufi Movements
Sufi Orders (Silsilas) in India
Sufism for CGPSC: key terms, the Chishti, Suhrawardi, Firdausi, Qadiri, Shattari and Naqshbandi silsilas, their saints, centres and texts.
Prerequisites
- Bhakti Saints of North, West and East India — the Hindu devotional stream that ran alongside Sufism
- The Delhi Sultanate — the Sultans whose courts the Sufis either served or kept away from
The Hook: A Qawwali You Have Already Heard
Connect
At almost every wedding season in Raipur or Bilaspur, someone plays a qawwali such as “Chhap tilak sab chheen li”. The verse is credited to Amir Khusrau (अमीर ख़ुसरो), a poet of 13th–14th-century Delhi, and it is addressed to his spiritual master, Nizamuddin Auliya (निज़ामुद्दीन औलिया).
Seven centuries later, Hindus and Muslims still crowd Nizamuddin’s dargah in Delhi and Muinuddin Chishti’s in Ajmer. Who were these saints, how were they organised, and why did some refuse to meet the Sultans while others held office at court?
Why it matters: “silsila — founder in India — centre” matches and statement questions on Sufi terms appear regularly. Mains asks about the Sufi contribution to composite culture.
What Is Sufism?
Sufism (तसव्वुफ़, tasawwuf) is the mystical stream within Islam. Sufis seek direct experience of God through love, devotion, self-discipline and the guidance of a master. The word is commonly derived from suf (wool), after the coarse woollen garments of early ascetics.
Sufism reached India with the Ghaznavid and Ghurid conquests. An early landmark is Ali al-Hujwiri (Data Ganj Bakhsh) of Lahore (11th century), whose Kashf-ul-Mahjub is regarded as the earliest treatise on Sufism in Persian. The great orders (silsilas) established themselves from the late 12th century. Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari speaks of fourteen silsilas in India.
Key terms
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Silsila (सिलसिला) | “Chain”: an order, a spiritual lineage from master to disciple going back to the Prophet |
| Pir / Shaikh / Murshid | The spiritual master |
| Murid | The disciple |
| Khalifa | Successor nominated by the pir |
| Khanqah | The hospice where the pir lived with disciples; also fed and sheltered visitors |
| Dargah | The shrine built over a Sufi saint’s grave |
| Urs | The saint’s death anniversary, celebrated as the “wedding” of the soul with God |
| Sama | Spiritual music and audition, the root of qawwali |
| Zikr | Remembrance of God by repeating His names (aloud or silently) |
| Wali | “Friend of God”: a saint |
| Futuh | Unsolicited gifts: the Chishtis lived on these rather than on fixed grants |
| Fana / Baqa | Annihilation of the self in God / abiding in God |
| Ba-shara / Be-shara | Sufis who follow the sharia (Islamic law) / those who do not (such as the wandering qalandars) |
Two big ideas
| Doctrine | Meaning | Associated with |
|---|---|---|
| Wahdat-ul-Wujud (वहदत-उल-वुजूद) | “Unity of Being”: all existence is one, a manifestation of God | Ibn al-Arabi (12th–13th centuries); widely accepted by Indian Sufis |
| Wahdat-ul-Shuhud (वहदत-उल-शुहूद) | “Unity of Appearance (or Witness)”: the oneness is in the mystic’s experience, not in being; God and creation stay distinct | Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Naqshbandi); a more orthodox reply to Wahdat-ul-Wujud |
The Major Silsilas
1. Chishti (चिश्ती) — the most popular in India
The order takes its name from Chisht, a town near Herat in Afghanistan.
| Saint | Centre | Key point |
|---|---|---|
| Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (ख़्वाजा मुईनुद्दीन चिश्ती) | Ajmer | Brought the order to India in the late 12th century; died 1236; the Ajmer dargah (Ajmer Sharif) is the order’s chief shrine. Called Gharib Nawaz |
| Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki | Delhi (Mehrauli) | Disciple of Muinuddin; active in Iltutmish’s time |
| Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar (Baba Farid) | Pakpattan (Punjab, now Pakistan) | His verses are included in the Guru Granth Sahib |
| Nizamuddin Auliya | Delhi (Ghiyaspur) | 1238–1325; the most famous Chishti of Delhi; disciples included Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Sijzi, who recorded his conversations in Fawaid-ul-Fuad |
| Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Dehli | Delhi | “Lamp of Delhi”; successor of Nizamuddin |
| Gesu Daraz (Bande Nawaz) | Gulbarga (Deccan) | Carried the order to the Bahmani kingdom |
| Shaikh Salim Chishti | Fatehpur Sikri | Akbar’s son Salim (Jahangir) was named after him; his tomb stands in the Fatehpur Sikri mosque courtyard |
| Hamiduddin Nagauri | Nagaur (Rajasthan) | Lived as a poor cultivator, a vegetarian, and is associated with the use of Hindavi |
Chishti features:
- Kept away from the court and the state; most refused land grants (jagirs) and government office.
- Lived simply on futuh; the khanqah kitchen fed all comers.
- Practised sama: music in worship, which made them popular and also drew criticism from the orthodox.
- Used Hindavi and local idioms, and adopted some local customs (bowing before the pir, offering water to visitors).
- Open to people of all religions and classes.
Legends you should know, with care
The saying “Hunuz Dilli dur ast” (“Delhi is still far away”), said to have been Nizamuddin’s reply to a threat from Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, is a popular legend. Amir Khusrau is traditionally credited with shaping the qawwali and with Hindavi verse. Use such stories as illustrations, not as dated facts.
2. Suhrawardi (सुहरावर्दी)
| Point | Detail |
|---|---|
| Origin | Associated with Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi of Baghdad (author of Awarif-ul-Maarif) |
| In India | Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya at Multan |
| Region | Multan, Sindh and Punjab |
| Attitude to state | Accepted royal patronage, grants and official posts; close to the Sultans |
| Life-style | Believed a Sufi could have wealth if used well; lived comfortably compared with the Chishtis |
3. Firdausi (फ़िरदौसी)
| Point | Detail |
|---|---|
| Origin | An offshoot of the Kubrawi order (some textbooks group it with the Suhrawardis) |
| In India | Shaikh Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri (died 1381), buried at Bihar Sharif |
| Region | Bihar |
| Remember | Maneri’s letters, the Maktubat-i-Sadi (“hundred letters”), are a classic of Sufi teaching |
4. Qadiri (क़ादिरी)
| Point | Detail |
|---|---|
| Origin | Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad (12th century) |
| In India | Arrived late, in the late 14th–15th centuries; Shah Niamatullah Qadiri and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani (Uch) are associated with its spread |
| Mughal era | Mian Mir of Lahore and his disciple Mulla Shah Badakhshi were the spiritual guides of prince Dara Shikoh. Sikh tradition holds that Mian Mir laid the foundation stone of the Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar (some historians question this) |
| Dara Shikoh | Wrote Majma-ul-Bahrain (“Mingling of the Two Oceans”, on Sufism and Vedanta) and had the Upanishads translated into Persian as Sirr-i-Akbar |
5. Shattari (शत्तारी)
| Point | Detail |
|---|---|
| In India | Shah Abdullah Shattari (15th century), active at Mandu |
| Key saint | Muhammad Ghaus of Gwalior (16th century), close to Humayun; the singer Tansen is buried near his tomb |
| Remember | Interest in yogic practices; known as a bridge between Sufi and yogic ideas |
6. Naqshbandi (नक़्शबंदी) — the orthodox order
| Point | Detail |
|---|---|
| Origin | Bahauddin Naqshband of Bukhara (14th century) |
| In India | Khwaja Baqi Billah, at the end of the 16th century (Akbar’s reign) |
| Key saint | Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564–1624), called Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani (“renewer of the second millennium”); taught Wahdat-ul-Shuhud; opposed Akbar’s liberal religious policies and the influence of Hindu practices on Islam |
| Later | Shah Waliullah (18th century), who translated the Quran into Persian |
| Practice | Silent zikr; opposed sama; stressed strict observance of the sharia |
The Rishi order of Kashmir
A home-grown order founded by Sheikh Nuruddin Wali (Nund Rishi) (14th–15th centuries), influenced by Lal Ded. Its saints lived simply, practised vegetarianism and service, and are revered by Kashmiri Hindus and Muslims alike. His shrine is at Charar-e-Sharif.
Chishti vs Suhrawardi: The Classic Contrast
| Point | Chishti | Suhrawardi |
|---|---|---|
| Relation with state | Kept away; refused grants and office | Accepted grants and office |
| Wealth | Poverty; lived on futuh | Wealth acceptable if used rightly |
| Sama (music) | Practised | More restrained |
| Region | Ajmer, Delhi, Deccan, then all India | Multan, Sindh, Punjab |
| Language | Hindavi and local idioms | Persian-based scholarship |
Memory Tricks
Chishti chain in India: 'Muin, Kaki, Farid, Nizam, Chirag'
Ajmer → Delhi → Pakpattan → Delhi → Delhi: “A Delhi Pilgrim Drinks Doodh.”
Muinuddin (Ajmer) → Bakhtiyar Kaki (Delhi) → Baba Farid (Pakpattan) → Nizamuddin (Delhi) → Nasiruddin Chirag (Delhi). Then Gesu Daraz took it south to Gulbarga.
Orders and their places: 'Chishti Ajmer, Suhra Multan, Firdaus Bihar, Naqsh Sirhind'
- Suhrawardi = Sindh-Multan (S for S)
- Firdausi = Bihar ("Far east" of the Sufi map)
- Naqshbandi = No music, No compromise (orthodox; Sirhindi)
- Qadiri = Quest for common ground: prince Dara Shikoh
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Wahdat-ul-Wujud — Unity of Being; Ibn al-Arabi | vs | Wahdat-ul-Shuhud — Unity of Appearance; Ahmad Sirhindi |
| Khanqah — hospice of a living pir | vs | Dargah — shrine over a saint’s tomb |
| Fawaid-ul-Fuad — Nizamuddin’s conversations, by Amir Hasan Sijzi | vs | Kashf-ul-Mahjub — al-Hujwiri, Lahore, earliest Persian Sufi treatise |
| Baba Farid (Chishti, Pakpattan, verses in the Guru Granth Sahib) | vs | Fariduddin Attar (Persian poet, Conference of the Birds) |
| Salim Chishti — Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar | vs | Muinuddin Chishti — Ajmer, founder of the order in India |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “The Chishtis accepted jagirs and posts from the Sultans.” False as a rule. That was the Suhrawardi attitude. The Chishtis kept their distance from the state.
- “The Naqshbandis encouraged sama.” False. They were the orthodox order and opposed music in worship.
- “Wahdat-ul-Shuhud was taught by Ibn al-Arabi.” False. Ibn al-Arabi taught Wahdat-ul-Wujud. Sirhindi taught Wahdat-ul-Shuhud.
- “The Firdausi order was centred at Multan.” False. Firdausi = Bihar (Maneri). Multan = Suhrawardi (Bahauddin Zakariya).
- “Dara Shikoh was a Naqshbandi.” False. He was attached to the Qadiri order (Mian Mir, Mulla Shah).
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The shrine over the grave of a Sufi saint is called a ______.
- Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi belonged to the ______ order.
- Fawaid-ul-Fuad records the conversations of ______.
Answers
- Dargah.
- Naqshbandi.
- Nizamuddin Auliya (compiled by Amir Hasan Sijzi).
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Match List I (Silsila) with List II (Saint associated with it in India):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Chishti | 1. Bahauddin Zakariya |
| B. Suhrawardi | 2. Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri |
| C. Firdausi | 3. Khwaja Baqi Billah |
| D. Naqshbandi | 4. Fariduddin Ganj-i-Shakar |
- (a) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
- (b) A-1, B-4, C-2, D-3
- (c) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3
- (d) A-4, B-1, C-3, D-2
Answer and explanation
(c) A-4, B-1, C-2, D-3. Baba Farid (Ganj-i-Shakar) was a Chishti of Pakpattan. Bahauddin Zakariya established the Suhrawardi order at Multan. Maneri spread the Firdausi order in Bihar. Baqi Billah brought the Naqshbandi order to India.
Q2. Consider the following statements about the Chishti order:
- Its saints generally avoided government service and refused land grants.
- It practised sama, devotional music, as a means of spiritual experience.
- Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi was its most famous saint in the Mughal period.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 and 2 only
- (b) 2 and 3 only
- (c) 1 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(a) 1 and 2 only. The Chishtis kept away from the state and practised sama. Sirhindi belonged to the Naqshbandi order, which opposed sama and was more orthodox.
Q3. The doctrine of Wahdat-ul-Shuhud is associated with:
- (a) Ibn al-Arabi
- (b) Nizamuddin Auliya
- (c) Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi
- (d) Ali al-Hujwiri
Answer and explanation
(c) Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi. He put forward Wahdat-ul-Shuhud (unity of appearance) as a more orthodox reply to Ibn al-Arabi’s Wahdat-ul-Wujud (unity of being).
Q4. Which of the following pairs is incorrectly matched?
- (a) Muinuddin Chishti — Ajmer
- (b) Gesu Daraz — Gulbarga
- (c) Salim Chishti — Fatehpur Sikri
- (d) Bahauddin Zakariya — Bihar Sharif
Answer and explanation
(d). Bahauddin Zakariya was the Suhrawardi saint of Multan. Bihar Sharif is associated with Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri of the Firdausi order. The other three pairs are correct.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) Describe the main features of the Chishti silsila and explain why it became the most popular Sufi order in India.
Model answer outline
- Intro: The Chishti order, named after Chisht near Herat, was brought to India by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (died 1236, Ajmer) in the late 12th century.
- Features:
- Distance from the state: refusal of grants and office; living on futuh.
- Open khanqahs and langar for all, irrespective of religion or class.
- Sama and qawwali as worship.
- Use of Hindavi and local idioms; adaptation of local customs.
- Simple life, pacifism, service of the poor.
- Reasons for popularity: accessible language and music; humanitarian service; tolerance towards non-Muslims; a chain of strong saints (Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid, Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin Chirag, Gesu Daraz) spreading it from Ajmer and Delhi to the Deccan; Mughal reverence (Akbar and Salim Chishti).
- Conclusion: By keeping away from power and close to people, the Chishtis became a bridge between communities, and their dargahs remain shared spaces.
Q2. (60 words) Distinguish between Wahdat-ul-Wujud and Wahdat-ul-Shuhud.
Model answer outline
Wahdat-ul-Wujud (Ibn al-Arabi): “Unity of Being”; all existence is a manifestation of one God; widely accepted by Indian Sufis and close to Vedantic monism. Wahdat-ul-Shuhud (Ahmad Sirhindi, Naqshbandi): “Unity of Appearance”; oneness is only in the mystic’s experience, God and creation remain distinct; a more orthodox position.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Kashf-ul-Mahjub | Ali al-Hujwiri (Data Ganj Bakhsh), Lahore; earliest Persian Sufi treatise |
| Ain-i-Akbari | Mentions 14 silsilas |
| Chishti | Muinuddin (Ajmer, d. 1236) → Bakhtiyar Kaki → Baba Farid (Pakpattan) → Nizamuddin (1238–1325) → Nasiruddin Chirag |
| Gesu Daraz | Chishti; Gulbarga |
| Salim Chishti | Fatehpur Sikri; Akbar |
| Suhrawardi | Bahauddin Zakariya, Multan; accepted state patronage |
| Firdausi | Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri; Bihar Sharif |
| Qadiri | Abdul Qadir Jilani (Baghdad); Mian Mir; Dara Shikoh |
| Shattari | Shah Abdullah Shattari; Muhammad Ghaus (Gwalior) |
| Naqshbandi | Baqi Billah; Ahmad Sirhindi (Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani); Wahdat-ul-Shuhud; orthodox |
| Rishi order | Kashmir; Nund Rishi (Sheikh Nuruddin Wali) |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- A silsila is a master–disciple chain; the key words are pir, murid, khanqah, dargah, urs, sama, zikr.
- Chishti (Ajmer, Delhi) kept away from the state and used music and Hindavi: the most popular order.
- Suhrawardi (Multan) accepted state patronage; Firdausi = Bihar.
- Naqshbandi (Sirhindi) was the orthodox order: no sama, Wahdat-ul-Shuhud.
- Qadiri links to Dara Shikoh, whose Majma-ul-Bahrain sought common ground between Sufism and Vedanta.
What’s Next
- Impact on Society — what Bhakti and Sufism together did to Indian society
- Bhakti Saints of North, West and East India — the saints who shared ideas and audiences with the Sufis
- The Mughal Empire — Akbar’s religious policy, Sirhindi’s reaction and Dara Shikoh
- Indian Art, Literature and Culture — qawwali, dargah architecture and Indo-Persian literature
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