History
The Delhi Sultanate
Art, Architecture and Literature of the Sultanate
Indo-Islamic architecture for CGPSC: Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza, Tughlaq and Lodi styles, the true arch and dome, plus Amir Khusrau, Barani and other chroniclers.
Prerequisites
- Foundation, Mamluks and Khaljis and Tughlaqs, Sayyids and Lodis: who ruled when, so you can date each building
- Indian Art, Literature and Culture: temple styles that the new architecture met and mixed with
The Hook: Two Buildings, One Decade
Connect
In 1311 Alauddin Khalji’s builders finished the Alai Darwaza, a red-sandstone gateway in Delhi with India’s oldest surviving true dome. In 1349, under the Phani Nagavanshi king Ramchandra Dev, the Madwa Mahal went up near Bhoramdeo in Kabirdham district: a Shiva temple in the older Indian temple tradition, with carved figures on its walls.
Two buildings, less than forty years apart, built on completely different principles. What were the new principles that the Sultans brought to Delhi, and how did they change Indian architecture?
Why it matters: Prelims loves “first” questions (first true arch, first true dome, first tomb, first double dome) and builder–monument matching. Mains asks about the features of Indo-Islamic architecture and its synthesis with Indian traditions.
What Was New: Features of Indo-Islamic Architecture
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| True arch (मेहराब) | Built from wedge-shaped stones (voussoirs) locked by a central keystone, so the load is carried sideways. Indian builders had used the corbelled (false) arch, made by stepping stones inwards |
| True dome (गुंबद) | A dome of voussoirs raised over a square room using squinches or pendentives to turn the square into a circle |
| Lime mortar | Strong lime mortar bound stone and rubble, allowing larger spans |
| Trabeate to arcuate | Indian building was trabeate (beam and lintel); the new style was arcuate (arch and dome). Early buildings mixed both |
| Decoration | Islamic tradition avoided human and animal figures, so ornament used calligraphy (Quranic verses), arabesque (scrolling plant forms) and geometric patterns |
| Materials | Red and buff sandstone, with white marble inlay from the Khalji period onwards |
| Building types | Mosques, minarets, tombs (maqbara), madrasas, forts and planned cities |
Synthesis, not replacement
The first Sultanate buildings were built by Indian craftsmen, often with material from demolished Hindu and Jain temples. Their carved pillars, lotus and bell motifs and corbelled domes survive inside the mosques. Over time Indian craft skills and Islamic structural ideas fused into a distinct Indo-Islamic style, which the Mughals later carried to its peak.
Phase 1: The Mamluks (13th century)
| Monument | Place | Builder and date | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|---|
| Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque | Qutb complex, Mehrauli, Delhi | Begun by Aibak in the 1190s; extended by Iltutmish and Alauddin | Among the earliest mosques in Delhi; built with temple pillars; has a carved arched screen whose arches are still corbelled, not true. The Gupta-period Iron Pillar stands in its courtyard |
| Qutb Minar | Qutb complex | Begun by Aibak (c. 1199); completed by Iltutmish (c. 1220); top storey replaced by two storeys under Firuz Shah Tughlaq after lightning in 1368 | 72.5 m, five storeys, fluted, with projecting balconies and calligraphic bands. The Qutb complex is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1993) |
| Adhai Din ka Jhonpra | Ajmer | Begun under Aibak in the 1190s; Iltutmish added the arched screen in the 1220s | Early mosque using temple material; name means “hut of two and a half days” (popular legend about its speed of construction) |
| Sultan Garhi | Malikpur, Delhi | Iltutmish, c. 1231 (dates vary) for his son Nasiruddin Mahmud | Regarded as the first Islamic tomb (mausoleum) in India; burial chamber in an underground vault |
| Tomb of Iltutmish | Qutb complex | c. 1235 | Richly carved interior with calligraphy; built by Iltutmish himself |
| Tomb of Balban | Mehrauli | c. 1287 | Where the first true arch in India appears. Its dome has not survived |
Phase 2: The Khaljis (c. 1290–1320)
| Monument | Builder | Why it matters |
|---|---|---|
| Alai Darwaza | Alauddin, 1311 | Southern gateway of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque; red sandstone with white marble inlay; horseshoe-shaped arches; earliest surviving true dome in India, built on true Islamic principles |
| Alai Minar | Alauddin | Planned to be twice the height of the Qutb Minar; left unfinished at the first storey after his death |
| Siri | Alauddin | New fortified city of Delhi built against the Mongols |
| Hauz-i-Alai (Hauz Khas) | Alauddin | Large reservoir for Siri; Firuz Shah later cleaned it and built a madrasa and his own tomb on its bank |
Phase 3: The Tughlaqs (1320–1414)
Style: austere and massive. Sloping (battered) walls, rubble masonry covered with plaster, little ornament. Reasons suggested: the military temper of the age, shortage of funds after Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and Firuz Shah’s orthodoxy.
| Monument | Builder | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Tughlaqabad | Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq | Fortified city with massive sloping walls |
| Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq | Built in his reign or soon after | Sloping walls, red sandstone with white marble, a white marble dome; originally surrounded by water |
| Jahanpanah | Muhammad bin Tughlaq | A walled city enclosing the area between Qila Rai Pithora and Siri |
| Firuzabad (Feroz Shah Kotla) | Firuz Shah | Citadel where he set up the Ashokan pillar from Topra on a stepped pyramidal structure |
| Hauz Khas madrasa and Firuz’s tomb | Firuz Shah | A major centre of learning |
| Khirki Masjid and Kalan Masjid | Khan-i-Jahan Junan Shah, Firuz’s wazir | Covered and enclosed mosque designs |
Phase 4: The Sayyids and Lodis (1414–1526)
- Octagonal tombs for Sultans (for example, those of Mubarak Shah and Muhammad Shah of the Sayyids), with a verandah of arches, sloping buttresses and chhatris (kiosks) on the roof.
- Square tombs for nobles, such as the Bara Gumbad in the Lodi Gardens.
- Tomb of Sikandar Lodi (1517–18), built by his son Ibrahim: octagonal, set in a walled enclosure, often called the first garden tomb of the region, and an early example of the double dome (an inner dome and a taller outer shell). The fully developed double dome appears later in Humayun’s Tomb.
Provincial styles (one line each)
As the Sultanate weakened, regional kingdoms built in their own idioms: Jaunpur (Sharqi: monumental mosque gateways such as the Atala Masjid), Gujarat (Ahmedabad: heavy use of temple-style carving and jali), Malwa (Mandu), Bengal (brick and curved roofs) and the Bahmani Deccan. These are optional depth for Mains.
Literature
Persian historians and their works
| Author | Work | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Minhaj-us-Siraj | Tabaqat-i-Nasiri | General history up to the mid-13th century; dedicated to Nasiruddin Mahmud |
| Amir Khusrau | Khazain-ul-Futuh, Qiran-us-Sadain, Miftah-ul-Futuh, Ashiqa, Nuh Sipihr, Tughlaq Nama | Poetic histories of events from Kaiqubad to Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq; Khazain-ul-Futuh narrates Alauddin’s conquests |
| Ziauddin Barani | Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi; Fatawa-i-Jahandari | The main source for Balban to Firuz, including Alauddin’s market reforms; Fatawa-i-Jahandari sets out his political ideas (zawabit) |
| Isami | Futuh-us-Salatin | Verse history; written at the court of the Bahmani founder |
| Shams Siraj Afif | Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi | Account of Firuz Shah’s reign (same title as Barani’s work) |
| Firuz Shah Tughlaq | Futuhat-i-Firuz Shahi | The Sultan’s own short account of his reign |
| Yahya bin Ahmad Sirhindi | Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi | History written under the Sayyid ruler Mubarak Shah |
| Ibn Battuta | Rihla (in Arabic) | Moroccan traveller’s account of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s India |
Amir Khusrau (अमीर ख़ुसरो), c. 1253–1325
- Poet, musician and courtier who served several Sultans from Balban’s time to Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq. Called Tuti-i-Hind (“Parrot of India”).
- A disciple of the Chishti Sufi Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi.
- Wrote in Persian and in Hindavi, the early form of Hindi–Urdu; riddles (paheliyan) and couplets in Hindavi are attributed to him.
- In Nuh Sipihr he praises India, its languages and its learning.
- Associated with the development of qawwali and other forms of Hindustani music.
Sitar and tabla: say 'traditionally credited'
Popular books say Khusrau invented the sitar and tabla. Modern scholars reject this: no source from his time mentions either instrument by name, and the credit may come from confusion with an 18th-century musician of a similar name. In an MCQ, “traditionally credited” is the safe reading; in Mains, mention that the claim is disputed.
Other literary developments
- Persian became the language of administration and high culture.
- Hindavi / Hindustani developed as a spoken link language in the towns and in Sufi circles.
- Sanskrit works were translated into Persian under Firuz Shah.
- Regional literatures flourished in the provinces and in Bhakti poetry (see Bhakti and Sufi Movements).
Chhattisgarh Angle
Temple building continued in Chhattisgarh
While Delhi built in the new arcuate style, temple architecture in Chhattisgarh continued in the older tradition under regional dynasties: the Madwa Mahal (1349) of the Phani Nagavanshis near Bhoramdeo and temples of the Kalachuri period in the plains. A Mains answer on Indo-Islamic architecture can note that the new style was concentrated in Sultanate centres, while forest kingdoms of central India kept the nagara temple tradition alive. See Kalachuri Art and Architecture and Temples and Monuments of Chhattisgarh.
Memory Tricks
The 'firsts' ladder: 'Sultan Built A Sikandar'
- Sultan Garhi (c. 1231): first tomb
- Balban’s tomb (c. 1287): first true arch
- Alai Darwaza (1311): first surviving true dome
- Sikandar Lodi’s tomb (1517–18): early double dome, first garden tomb of the region
The order S → B → A → S is also the chronological order: tomb, then arch, then dome, then double dome.
Tughlaq style in three words
Slope, Stone-rubble, Simple. Sloping walls, rubble masonry, little ornament.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Qutb Minar: begun by Aibak, completed by Iltutmish | vs | Alai Minar: Alauddin’s unfinished tower |
| Alai Darwaza: gateway, 1311, true dome | vs | Buland Darwaza: Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri (Mughal) |
| Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi | vs | Afif’s Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi (same title) and Firuz’s own Futuhat-i-Firuz Shahi |
| Minhaj: Tabaqat-i-Nasiri (Nasiruddin Mahmud) | vs | Yahya Sirhindi: Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (Mubarak Shah, Sayyid) |
| Ibn Battuta: Rihla, Arabic, 14th century | vs | Al-Biruni: Kitab-ul-Hind, Arabic, 11th century |
| Sultan Garhi: tomb of Iltutmish’s son | vs | Iltutmish’s own tomb: Qutb complex |
| Corbelled arch: stepped stones, Indian | vs | True arch: voussoirs and keystone, Islamic |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “The Qutb Minar was completed by Aibak.” He began it; Iltutmish completed it, and Firuz Shah rebuilt the top after 1368.
- “Alai Darwaza has the first true arch in India.” The first true arch is in Balban’s tomb; Alai Darwaza has the earliest surviving true dome.
- “The Quwwat-ul-Islam screen has true arches.” Its early arches are corbelled, made by Indian masons.
- “Amir Khusrau wrote the Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi.” That was Barani (and Afif).
- “Tughlaq buildings are richly decorated.” They are known for austerity.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The first true arch in India is found in the tomb of ______.
- Amir Khusrau was a disciple of the Sufi saint ______.
- The Qutb Minar was struck by lightning in 1368 and repaired by ______.
Answers
- Balban (Mehrauli, c. 1287).
- Nizamuddin Auliya.
- Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements:
- The Alai Darwaza was built by Alauddin Khalji in 1311 and has the earliest surviving true dome in India.
- Sultan Garhi was built by Balban as his own tomb.
- The tomb of Sikandar Lodi was built by his son Ibrahim Lodi.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 3 only. Sultan Garhi was built by Iltutmish for his son Nasiruddin Mahmud and is regarded as the first Islamic tomb in India. Balban’s tomb is a separate monument in Mehrauli, notable for the first true arch.
Q2. Match List I (Author) with List II (Work):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Minhaj-us-Siraj | 1. Fatawa-i-Jahandari |
| B. Ziauddin Barani | 2. Khazain-ul-Futuh |
| C. Amir Khusrau | 3. Tabaqat-i-Nasiri |
| D. Isami | 4. Futuh-us-Salatin |
- (a) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
- (b) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4
- (c) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
- (d) A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
Answer and explanation
(b) A-3, B-1, C-2, D-4. Minhaj dedicated the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri to Nasiruddin Mahmud. Barani set out his political ideas in the Fatawa-i-Jahandari. Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh narrates Alauddin’s conquests. Isami wrote the Futuh-us-Salatin.
Q3. Which of the following is characteristic of Tughlaq architecture?
- (a) Extensive use of white marble with pietra dura inlay
- (b) Sloping (battered) walls and plain rubble masonry
- (c) Bulbous double domes on high drums
- (d) Temple-style sculpture of human figures
Answer and explanation
(b). Tughlaq buildings, from Tughlaqabad to Firuzabad, are massive and austere, with sloping walls. Pietra dura (a) and bulbous double domes (c) belong to the Mughal period, and figure sculpture (d) was avoided in Islamic buildings.
Q4. Arrange the following monuments in chronological order of construction:
- Alai Darwaza
- Tomb of Balban
- Sultan Garhi
- Tomb of Sikandar Lodi
- (a) 3-2-1-4
- (b) 2-3-1-4
- (c) 3-1-2-4
- (d) 2-1-3-4
Answer and explanation
(a) 3-2-1-4. Sultan Garhi (c. 1231), Balban’s tomb (c. 1287), Alai Darwaza (1311) and Sikandar Lodi’s tomb (1517–18).
Q5. Amir Khusrau is known as:
- (a) Lakh Bakhsh
- (b) Tuti-i-Hind
- (c) Sikandar-i-Sani
- (d) Zil-i-Ilahi
Answer and explanation
(b) Tuti-i-Hind, the “Parrot of India”. Lakh Bakhsh was Aibak’s title, Sikandar-i-Sani was Alauddin’s, and Zil-i-Ilahi was Balban’s description of the Sultan.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) Discuss the main features of Indo-Islamic architecture under the Delhi Sultanate, with examples.
Model answer outline
- Intro: The Sultanate brought new structural principles that fused with Indian craft to create Indo-Islamic architecture.
- Structural features: true arch (Balban’s tomb), true dome (Alai Darwaza, 1311), lime mortar, arcuate replacing trabeate; minarets (Qutb Minar).
- Decoration: calligraphy, arabesque, geometric patterns; red sandstone with white marble from the Khaljis onwards.
- Phases: Mamluk (Quwwat-ul-Islam, Qutb Minar, Sultan Garhi); Khalji (Alai Darwaza, Siri); Tughlaq (sloping walls, Tughlaqabad, Firuzabad); Lodi (octagonal tombs, early double dome, garden tomb).
- Synthesis: Indian masons, temple material and motifs (lotus, bell, corbelled screen arches) inside Islamic forms.
- Chhattisgarh angle (one line): contemporary Chhattisgarh kept the nagara temple tradition (Madwa Mahal, 1349), showing how regional the new style remained.
- Conclusion: the Sultanate laid the technical and aesthetic base for Mughal architecture.
Q2. (60 words) Write a short note on Amir Khusrau.
Model answer outline
- c. 1253–1325; poet-courtier from Balban to Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq; “Tuti-i-Hind”; disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
- Works: Khazain-ul-Futuh, Nuh Sipihr, Qiran-us-Sadain, Ashiqa; Persian and Hindavi verse.
- Linked to qawwali; the sitar and tabla credit is traditional but disputed.
- Significance: a symbol of Indo-Persian cultural synthesis.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Quwwat-ul-Islam | Aibak, 1190s; temple material; corbelled screen arches |
| Qutb Minar | Begun c. 1199 (Aibak), completed c. 1220 (Iltutmish); 72.5 m; top rebuilt by Firuz after 1368; UNESCO 1993 (Qutb complex) |
| Adhai Din ka Jhonpra | Ajmer; Aibak; screen by Iltutmish |
| Sultan Garhi | c. 1231; first Islamic tomb in India; Iltutmish’s son |
| Balban’s tomb | c. 1287; first true arch |
| Alai Darwaza | 1311; earliest surviving true dome; red sandstone and marble |
| Tughlaq style | Sloping walls, rubble, austere; Tughlaqabad, Firuzabad |
| Sikandar Lodi’s tomb | 1517–18; early double dome; first garden tomb of the region |
| Minhaj | Tabaqat-i-Nasiri |
| Barani | Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, Fatawa-i-Jahandari |
| Amir Khusrau | Tuti-i-Hind; Khazain-ul-Futuh, Nuh Sipihr; disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya |
| Ibn Battuta | Rihla (Arabic) |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- The Sultanate introduced the true arch, true dome and lime mortar: an arcuate style replacing the trabeate.
- Learn the firsts: Sultan Garhi (tomb), Balban’s tomb (arch), Alai Darwaza (dome), Sikandar Lodi’s tomb (early double dome).
- Each dynasty has a signature: Mamluk (Qutb complex), Khalji (Alai Darwaza), Tughlaq (sloping walls), Lodi (octagonal tombs).
- Persian historiography (Minhaj, Barani, Afif) and Amir Khusrau are the main literary sources and topics.
- Indo-Islamic architecture was a synthesis that the Mughals later perfected.
What’s Next
- Delhi Sultanate — Quick Revision: the whole chapter on one page
- The Mughal Empire: Humayun’s Tomb and the mature Indo-Islamic style
- Bhakti and Sufi Movements: Nizamuddin Auliya and the Chishti silsila
- Tourism, Archaeological Sites and Heritage: Chhattisgarh’s own monuments
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