History
Jainism, Buddhism and Religious Movements
Religious Ferment of the 6th Century BCE: Shramanas, Ajivikas and Charvakas
Why new religions arose in the 6th century BCE: causes, the six heterodox teachers, Ajivikas, Charvakas and early Bhagavatism for CGPSC Prelims and Mains.
Prerequisites
- The Vedic Age — the sacrificial religion and varna order that the new sects reacted against
- Mahajanapadas, Magadha and the Mauryan Empire — the political world (kingdoms, gana-sanghas, new cities) in which these teachers preached
- Indian Philosophy — the Mains GS-IV view of the same schools (astika vs nastika)
The Hook: Many Teachers, One Question
Connect
Walk through any weekly haat in Chhattisgarh and you will hear several voices selling the same thing in different ways. The Gangetic towns of the 6th–5th century BCE were like that for ideas. In the same few decades, in the same region of Magadha and Kosala, a Shakya prince (the Buddha), a Lichchhavi-connected prince (Mahavira), a fatalist ascetic (Makkhali Gosala) and a materialist (Ajita Kesakambali) were all offering an answer to one question:
If the Vedic sacrifice does not free us from suffering and rebirth, what does?
Why it matters: Prelims asks about the causes of the new movements and likes “match the teacher with the doctrine” questions (Gosala–niyati, Ajita–materialism). Mains asks you to explain the rise of heterodox sects — the background on this page is the first half of every such answer.
Why New Religions Arose: The Causes
The period is often described as an age of intellectual ferment. Over sixty sects are said to have existed (a figure drawn from Buddhist texts, so treat it as indicative). The causes fall into four groups.
| Group | Cause | How it helped the new sects |
|---|---|---|
| Religious | Later Vedic religion had become ritual-heavy and expensive; sacrifices needed priests and animals | Ordinary people wanted a simpler path to salvation |
| Religious | The Upanishads had already questioned ritual and turned to knowledge, karma and rebirth | The ground for debate was prepared |
| Social | A rigid varna order placed the Brahmana at the top; Kshatriyas resented Brahmana claims | Both Mahavira and the Buddha were Kshatriyas |
| Social | Vaishyas (traders) had wealth but low ritual status; money-lending and sea travel were frowned on in Brahmanical law books | Traders became the strongest lay supporters of Jainism and Buddhism |
| Economic | Spread of iron tools and plough agriculture in the middle Gangetic plain | Cattle were needed for ploughing, so mass animal sacrifice became costly; ahimsa had an economic logic |
| Economic | Second urbanisation: towns, trade, punch-marked coins | A new urban public, open to new ideas and able to fund monasteries |
| Political | Rise of Mahajanapadas and gana-sanghas (Shakyas, Lichchhavis, Mallas) | Kings and republics patronised teachers; the Sangha copied the gana-sangha’s assembly procedure |
| Linguistic | Teachers preached in Prakrit / Pali, the people’s languages, not Sanskrit | Their message reached ordinary people directly |
Shramana and Brahmana (श्रमण और ब्राह्मण)
Indian tradition speaks of two streams. The Brahmana stream accepts the Vedas, ritual and the householder’s life. The Shramana (श्रमण) stream — wandering ascetics who “strive” — rejected Vedic authority and sought liberation through renunciation and self-effort. Jainism, Buddhism and the Ajivikas all belong to the shramana stream. Later Indian philosophy calls schools that reject Vedic authority nastika (नास्तिक) — in this sense, “not accepting the Vedas”, not “atheist”.
The Six Heterodox Teachers
The Buddhist text Samannaphala Sutta (in the Digha Nikaya) names six teachers who were the Buddha’s contemporaries and rivals. It reports their views from a Buddhist angle, so treat the summaries as hostile reports.
| Teacher | Doctrine (as reported) | Key word |
|---|---|---|
| Purana Kassapa | Actions bring neither merit nor sin | Akiriyavada (non-action) |
| Makkhali Gosala | Everything is fixed by destiny; human effort changes nothing | Niyati (नियति) — fatalism; founder-leader of the Ajivikas |
| Ajita Kesakambali | Man is made of four elements and is destroyed at death; no afterlife, no fruit of good or bad deeds | Materialism (uchchhedavada) |
| Pakudha Kachchayana | Seven eternal, unchanging elements; killing is only a sword passing between elements | Eternalism of elements |
| Sanjaya Belatthiputta | Refused to give a definite answer on any metaphysical question | Agnosticism / scepticism (“eel-wriggling”) |
| Nigantha Nataputta | Restraint of body, speech and mind | This is Mahavira under his Buddhist name |
The Ajivikas (आजीविक)
- Leader: Makkhali Gosala (मक्खलि गोसाल). Jain texts say he spent some six years with Mahavira before they quarrelled and parted.
- Doctrine: Niyati — strict determinism. Every soul passes through a fixed number of births before release, whatever it does.
- Practice: severe asceticism, nakedness.
- Royal patronage: the Barabar hill caves (Jehanabad district, Bihar) — the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India — carry inscriptions of Ashoka granting them to the Ajivikas. The nearby Nagarjuni hill caves were granted by his grandson Dasharatha.
- The sect later declined and disappeared; no Ajivika scripture survives. Everything we know comes from Buddhist and Jain texts and the cave inscriptions.
The Charvakas / Lokayata (चार्वाक / लोकायत)
- Founder (legendary): Brihaspati; the school is also called Lokayata (“that which is spread among the people”, i.e. this-worldly).
- Knowledge: only perception (pratyaksha) is a valid source of knowledge; inference and scripture are rejected.
- Metaphysics: the body is made of four elements (earth, water, fire, air); consciousness arises from their combination, as intoxicating power arises from fermented ingredients. No soul, no rebirth, no heaven.
- Ethics: pleasure in this life is the goal; Vedic ritual is criticised as priestly fraud.
- No original Charvaka text survives; their views are known from opponents’ summaries.
Early Theistic Movements (for context)
The ferment was not only anti-Vedic. Devotion to personal gods was also growing, and it later fed into the Bhakti movement.
- Bhagavatism (भागवत धर्म): worship of Vasudeva-Krishna. The Heliodorus pillar (a Garuda pillar) at Besnagar near Vidisha, set up in about the 2nd century BCE by Heliodorus, a Greek envoy of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, calls him a Bhagavata — a foreigner who became a Vaishnava devotee.
- Shaivism: worship of Shiva/Pashupati developed in the same centuries; the Pashupata sect is the earliest organised Shaiva order known.
Analysis: Was It a “Revolt”?
For Mains, avoid presenting Jainism and Buddhism as a sudden revolt against Hinduism. A balanced view:
- Continuity: karma, rebirth (samsara) and liberation (moksha/nirvana) were shared with the Upanishads. The break was over authority (Vedas), ritual (sacrifice) and birth-based hierarchy (varna).
- Social base: Kshatriya teachers, Vaishya patrons and urban audiences — new social groups seeking a religion that matched their status.
- Material base: iron-plough agriculture and towns gave both the motive (protect cattle) and the means (surplus to support monks).
- Political base: Magadhan and Kosalan kings and the gana-sanghas protected the teachers, and in turn gained ideological support.
- Long-term effect: ahimsa, vegetarianism, monastic education and Prakrit literature entered the mainstream; Brahmanism itself reformed (Bhakti, the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu in later Puranas).
Memory Tricks
Causes: R-S-E-P-L
“Ritual cost, Social (varna), Economy (iron plough, cattle, towns), Politics (Mahajanapadas), Language (Prakrit).” — the five headings of every Mains answer on this topic.
Six teachers in one line
“Purana does nothing, Gosala has fate, Ajita is dust, Pakudha counts seven, Sanjaya says maybe, Nataputta is Mahavira.”
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Ajivika — Makkhali Gosala, niyati (fate) | vs | Charvaka — Brihaspati (legendary), materialism, perception only |
| Barabar caves — Ashoka to Ajivikas | vs | Nagarjuni caves — Dasharatha to Ajivikas |
| Nagarjuni hill (Bihar, Mauryan caves) | vs | Nagarjuna (Mahayana philosopher) and Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Buddhist site) |
| Nastika = rejects Vedic authority | vs | “Atheist” in the modern sense — Jainism and Buddhism are nastika but not simply “atheist” |
| Nigantha Nataputta (Buddhist name) | vs | Mahavira — same person |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “The Ajivikas were founded by Mahavira.” Wrong. Their leader was Makkhali Gosala, once Mahavira’s companion.
- “The Barabar caves are Buddhist.” Wrong. Ashoka dedicated them to the Ajivikas, even though he was himself a Buddhist — a classic example of his tolerance.
- “Ajita Kesakambali preached fatalism.” No — that is Gosala. Ajita was the materialist.
- “The new sects rejected karma and rebirth.” Jainism and Buddhism accepted both; it was the Charvakas who rejected rebirth.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The doctrine of niyati (fate) is associated with ______.
- Only perception is accepted as a valid source of knowledge by the ______ school.
- The Barabar caves were granted to the Ajivikas by the Mauryan emperor ______.
Answers
- Makkhali Gosala (Ajivikas).
- Charvaka / Lokayata.
- Ashoka (the Nagarjuni caves by Dasharatha).
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements about the religious movements of the 6th–5th century BCE:
- The spread of plough agriculture made the large-scale sacrifice of cattle economically wasteful.
- Both Mahavira and the Buddha belonged to Brahmana families.
- Traders, who had wealth but low ritual status, were important supporters of the new sects.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 3 only. Statement 2 is wrong: both were Kshatriyas — the Buddha a Shakya, Mahavira of the Jnatrika clan with a Lichchhavi mother. Kshatriya resentment of Brahmana supremacy is itself one of the causes listed for the rise of the new sects.
Q2. Match List I (Teacher) with List II (Doctrine as reported in Buddhist texts):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Makkhali Gosala | 1. Agnosticism |
| B. Ajita Kesakambali | 2. Fatalism (niyati) |
| C. Sanjaya Belatthiputta | 3. Seven eternal elements |
| D. Pakudha Kachchayana | 4. Materialism |
- (a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
- (b) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
- (c) A-2, B-4, C-3, D-1
- (d) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
Answer and explanation
(a) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3. Gosala led the Ajivikas and taught that destiny decides everything. Ajita held that a person is only four elements and perishes at death. Sanjaya refused to commit to any answer. Pakudha taught seven unchanging elements.
Q3. The oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India, dedicated by a Mauryan ruler to the Ajivika sect, are located at:
- (a) Ajanta
- (b) Udayagiri–Khandagiri
- (c) Barabar
- (d) Karle
Answer and explanation
(c) Barabar (Jehanabad district, Bihar). Ashoka’s inscriptions record the grant to the Ajivikas. Udayagiri–Khandagiri are Jain caves of Kharavela’s time in Odisha; Ajanta and Karle are later Buddhist caves.
Q4. The term nastika in classical Indian philosophy refers to schools that:
- (a) deny the existence of the soul
- (b) do not accept the authority of the Vedas
- (c) deny rebirth
- (d) worship no god
Answer and explanation
(b). Nastika means not accepting Vedic authority. Jainism accepts the soul (jiva) and rebirth, yet is nastika. Only the Charvakas deny soul and rebirth both.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) Explain the social, economic and religious factors behind the rise of heterodox sects in the 6th century BCE.
Model answer outline
- Intro: The 6th–5th century BCE middle Gangetic plain saw many shramana sects — Jainism, Buddhism, Ajivikas, Charvakas — challenging Vedic orthodoxy.
- Religious: costly, priest-dominated sacrifices; Upanishadic questioning; desire for a simple ethical path.
- Social: rigid varna order; Kshatriya resentment of Brahmana claims (both founders were Kshatriyas); Vaishyas’ wealth without status.
- Economic: iron-plough agriculture needed cattle, so ahimsa suited farmers; second urbanisation, trade and coinage created patrons for monasteries.
- Political: Mahajanapadas and gana-sanghas patronised teachers; the Sangha borrowed republican procedures.
- Linguistic: preaching in Prakrit/Pali reached ordinary people.
- Conclusion: The sects were a response to a changing material and social order, not merely a theological revolt; their ideas — ahimsa, ethical conduct — reshaped Indian religion.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Period | 6th–5th century BCE, middle Gangetic plain |
| Main causes | Ritual cost, varna rigidity, iron-plough agriculture, urbanisation and trade, Mahajanapadas, Prakrit |
| Source for the six teachers | Samannaphala Sutta (Digha Nikaya) |
| Makkhali Gosala | Ajivikas; niyati (fatalism) |
| Ajita Kesakambali | Materialism (four elements) |
| Purana Kassapa | Akiriyavada — no merit or sin |
| Pakudha Kachchayana | Seven eternal elements |
| Sanjaya Belatthiputta | Agnosticism |
| Nigantha Nataputta | Mahavira |
| Barabar / Nagarjuni caves | Ashoka / Dasharatha → Ajivikas |
| Charvaka | Brihaspati (legendary); perception only; no soul, no rebirth |
| Heliodorus pillar | Besnagar (Vidisha), c. 2nd century BCE; Greek envoy as a Bhagavata |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- The new sects grew from material change (iron, plough, towns, trade) as much as from religious dissatisfaction.
- They belong to the shramana stream and are nastika — they reject Vedic authority, not necessarily the soul or rebirth.
- The six teachers of the Samannaphala Sutta include Mahavira (as Nigantha Nataputta) and Gosala of the Ajivikas.
- The Ajivikas (fatalism) received the Barabar caves from Ashoka; the Charvakas were thorough materialists.
- Theistic Bhagavatism (Heliodorus pillar) grew in parallel and later fed the Bhakti tradition.
What’s Next
- Mahavira and Jain Philosophy — the first of the two great shramana religions
- Buddha and Buddhist Philosophy
- Mahajanapadas, Magadha and the Mauryan Empire — the kings who patronised these teachers
- Bhakti and Sufi Movements — where the devotional strand led
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