Society & Welfare
Education and Human Resource Development
Education Policy: Constitution, RTE and NEP 2020
Education in the Constitution, RTE Act 2009, the commissions and policies from Kothari to NEP 2020, and NEP implementation status as of 2026 with a Chhattisgarh angle.
Prerequisites
- Fundamental Rights — Article 21A (right to education) and Articles 29–30 (minority educational rights) sit in Part III.
- Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties — Article 45 (early childhood care) and Article 51A(k) (duty of parents).
- Centre–State Relations — education is a Concurrent List subject, which explains most NEP controversies.
The Hook: A Halbi Textbook in a Bastar Classroom
Connect
A seven-year-old in a village near Jagdalpur speaks Halbi (हल्बी) at home. For decades her first school textbook was in standard Hindi, a language she barely heard outside the classroom. Many such children fell behind in reading by Class 3 and never caught up.
Since 2024 the Chhattisgarh government has been preparing bilingual primary books in local languages such as Halbi, Gondi, Kurukh, Sadri, Sargujiha and Chhattisgarhi. The idea comes straight from the National Education Policy 2020, which asks that the home language be the medium of teaching at least up to Class 5 wherever possible.
Where does this idea come from, who has the power to make education policy, and how far has NEP 2020 actually been implemented? This page answers those questions.
Why it matters: Mains GS-V (Paper VII) asks about education policy, the Right to Education and the role of institutions in human resource development. A good answer needs the constitutional base, the policy history, the NEP’s features and an honest assessment of implementation, preferably with a Chhattisgarh example.
Education in the Constitution
| Provision | What it says |
|---|---|
| Art 21A | Free and compulsory education for all children aged 6–14 as a Fundamental Right. Inserted by the 86th Amendment (2002); given effect by the RTE Act, 2009 |
| Art 45 (DPSP) | After the 86th Amendment: the State shall endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete six years |
| Art 51A(k) | Fundamental Duty of a parent or guardian to provide opportunities for education to a child aged 6–14 (also 86th Amendment) |
| Art 41 (DPSP) | Right to work, to education and to public assistance, within the State’s economic capacity |
| Art 46 (DPSP) | Promote the educational and economic interests of SCs, STs and weaker sections |
| Arts 29–30 | Protection of minority languages and culture; minorities’ right to establish and administer educational institutions |
| Art 350A | Facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage for children of linguistic minority groups |
| Art 15(5) | Reservation in admission to educational institutions, including private unaided ones (93rd Amendment, 2005), except minority institutions |
Legislative lists:
- Entry 25, Concurrent List (List III): education, including technical and medical education and universities. Education was moved here from the State List by the 42nd Amendment (1976).
- Entry 66, Union List: coordination and determination of standards in institutions for higher education, research and scientific and technical institutions. This is the constitutional base for central regulators such as the UGC.
- Entries 63–65, Union List: specific universities (BHU, AMU, Delhi) and institutions declared to be of national importance.
Why the Concurrent List matters
Because both the Union and the States can legislate on education, every national policy needs State cooperation to work in schools and State universities. Disputes over the three-language formula, central schemes tied to signing MoUs, and a single national regulator are all, at root, Concurrent List questions about cooperative federalism.
Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009
The RTE Act (निःशुल्क और अनिवार्य बाल शिक्षा का अधिकार अधिनियम) was passed in 2009 and came into force on 1 April 2010.
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Coverage | Every child aged 6–14: free education in a neighbourhood school until elementary education (Class 1–8) is complete |
| Section 12(1)(c) | Private unaided schools must reserve 25% of entry-level seats for children from disadvantaged groups and weaker sections; the State reimburses the cost |
| Prohibitions | No capitation fee, no screening of child or parents for admission, no physical punishment or mental harassment |
| Norms | Pupil–teacher ratio of 30:1 (primary) and 35:1 (upper primary); infrastructure and teacher-qualification norms |
| School Management Committees | Elected committees with at least 75% parents or guardians, to plan and monitor the school |
| Monitoring | NCPCR and the State Commissions for Protection of Child Rights |
| No-detention policy | Originally no child could be held back until Class 8. The RTE (Amendment) Act, 2019 lets States hold regular examinations in Classes 5 and 8 and detain a child who fails a re-examination |
Key cases: Society for Unaided Private Schools of Rajasthan v. Union of India (2012) upheld the 25% quota for private unaided schools. Pramati Educational and Cultural Trust v. Union of India (2014) held that the RTE Act does not apply to minority schools, aided or unaided.
From Commissions to Policies: the Timeline
timeline title Education policy in independent India 1948-49 : University Education Commission (S. Radhakrishnan) - recommended a UGC 1952-53 : Secondary Education Commission (A. L. Mudaliar) 1964-66 : Kothari Commission (D. S. Kothari) - "destiny of India is being shaped in her classrooms" 1968 : First National Policy on Education - three-language formula, 6% of national income goal 1986 : NPE 1986 - Operation Blackboard, Navodaya Vidyalayas 1992 : NPE revised + Programme of Action 2002 : 86th Amendment - Art 21A 2009 : RTE Act (in force 1 April 2010) 2017-19 : Kasturirangan Committee drafts the new policy 2020 : NEP 2020 approved (29 July 2020)
| Policy | Government | Key ideas |
|---|---|---|
| NPE 1968 | Indira Gandhi | Based on the Kothari Commission; three-language formula; common school system as the goal; spend 6% of national income on education |
| NPE 1986 (revised 1992) | Rajiv Gandhi; revision under P.V. Narasimha Rao | Removal of disparities; Operation Blackboard (minimum facilities in primary schools); Navodaya Vidyalayas; open universities (IGNOU 1985); Programme of Action 1992 |
| NEP 2020 | Narendra Modi | Replaced the 1986 policy after 34 years; drafted by the committee chaired by former ISRO chief Dr K. Kasturirangan |
The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) was created in 1985. In 2020, with NEP, it was renamed the Ministry of Education again.
Two committees to know for Mains
- Yash Pal Committee (2009) recommended replacing the UGC, AICTE and other bodies with a single higher-education regulator. That idea reappears in NEP 2020 and in the 2025 single-regulator Bill (see Higher Education and Research Institutions).
- T.S.R. Subramanian Committee (2016) prepared inputs for a new policy before the Kasturirangan Committee took over.
National Education Policy 2020 (राष्ट्रीय शिक्षा नीति 2020)
Approved by the Union Cabinet on 29 July 2020. Its five guiding pillars are usually listed as Access, Equity, Quality, Affordability and Accountability.
School education
New structure (5+3+3+4) replaces the old 10+2:
| Stage | Years | Ages | Classes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Foundational | 5 | 3–8 | 3 years of pre-school / Anganwadi / Balvatika + Classes 1–2 |
| Preparatory | 3 | 8–11 | Classes 3–5 |
| Middle | 3 | 11–14 | Classes 6–8 |
| Secondary | 4 | 14–18 | Classes 9–12 |
| Area | NEP 2020 provision |
|---|---|
| Early childhood | Universal quality early childhood care and education (ECCE) by 2030 |
| Foundational literacy and numeracy | Every child to achieve FLN by Class 3; a national mission set up for it (NIPUN Bharat, below) |
| Access | 100% GER from pre-school to secondary by 2030; bring about 2 crore out-of-school children back |
| Language | Medium of instruction in the home language / mother tongue / local language at least up to Class 5, preferably till Class 8 and beyond, wherever possible. Three-language formula retained with flexibility; “no language will be imposed on any State” |
| Curriculum | Reduced content; no hard separation between arts and sciences, curricular and extra-curricular, or vocational and academic streams; coding and vocational exposure from Class 6 with internships |
| Assessment | Board exams made “easier” and lower-stakes, with an option of taking them twice; PARAKH as a national assessment centre; 360-degree holistic progress card |
| Teachers | 4-year integrated B.Ed. to be the minimum qualification by 2030; National Professional Standards for Teachers |
| Governance | School complexes or clusters to share resources; a State School Standards Authority to separate regulation from provision |
Higher education
| Area | NEP 2020 provision |
|---|---|
| GER target | 50% in higher education (including vocational) by 2035 |
| Multidisciplinary | Large multidisciplinary universities and colleges; model MERUs (Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities) |
| UG degree | 3 or 4 years with multiple entry and exit: certificate after 1 year, diploma after 2, degree after 3, and a 4-year degree with research or honours |
| Credit mobility | Academic Bank of Credits (ABC) to store and transfer credits |
| Affiliation | Phase out the affiliating-university system by 2035; colleges to become autonomous degree-granting institutions |
| M.Phil | Discontinued |
| Regulation | A single Higher Education Commission of India (HECI) with four verticals: NHERC (regulation), NAC (accreditation), HEGC (grants), GEC (standards). Medical and legal education kept outside |
| Research | A National Research Foundation (enacted as ANRF, 2023) |
| Entrance | Common entrance tests by the National Testing Agency |
| Internationalisation | Allow top foreign universities to set up campuses in India |
Cross-cutting: public spending on education to reach 6% of GDP; Gender Inclusion Fund; Special Education Zones for disadvantaged regions; National Educational Technology Forum; Indian Knowledge Systems; adult education (later run as the ULLAS / New India Literacy Programme).
NEP 2020: Implementation Status (as of 2026)
Dated facts
Everything in this section is a status report. Write “as of 2026” in an answer, and check the news before the exam.
| Area | What has happened |
|---|---|
| NIPUN Bharat | National Mission on Foundational Literacy and Numeracy, launched 5 July 2021 |
| Curriculum frameworks | NCF for the Foundational Stage (2022) and NCF for School Education (2023); NCERT has been releasing new textbooks class by class |
| PM SHRI schools | Approved in September 2022 to upgrade over 14,500 existing schools as NEP model schools (2022-23 to 2026-27). States must sign an MoU to join |
| PARAKH | National assessment centre set up in NCERT; it ran the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (national achievement survey) in December 2024 |
| APAAR ID | “One Nation One Student ID”, a lifelong academic ID linked to the Academic Bank of Credits |
| Board exams twice a year | CBSE Class 10 moved to two board exams from 2026: a compulsory first exam in February and an optional second exam in May to improve scores |
| CUET | Common University Entrance Test for central university UG admissions from 2022, run by the NTA |
| Four-year UG / ABC | Adopted by central universities and many States; National Credit Framework (2023) |
| Foreign campuses | UGC regulations on campuses of foreign universities (2023); campuses have begun operating in India |
| Research | Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) Act, 2023 |
| Single regulator | The Viksit Bharat Shiksha Adhishthan Bill, 2025 was introduced on 15 December 2025 to replace the UGC, AICTE and NCTE. As of August 2026 it was still before a Joint Parliamentary Committee and had not been passed |
| Spending | Public spending remains well below the 6% of GDP target |
Evaluation for Mains
| Strengths | Concerns |
|---|---|
| Focus on early childhood and foundational literacy, where India’s learning crisis begins | Funding: 6% of GDP has been a target since 1968 and is still not met |
| Mother-tongue teaching suits tribal and multilingual states such as Chhattisgarh | Shortage of teachers and textbooks in tribal languages; parents’ demand for English-medium schooling |
| Flexibility: multiple exits, credit transfer, no rigid streams | Federalism: three-language formula and MoU-linked central schemes resisted by some States (for example Tamil Nadu) |
| Vocational exposure from Class 6 links schooling to skills | Four-year UG may raise cost and duration; “exit” certificates may have low labour-market value |
| Single light-but-tight regulator could reduce overlap | Fear of centralisation and loss of State-university autonomy |
| Board exam reform reduces exam stress | Digital divide limits ed-tech led reforms in remote areas |
Chhattisgarh Angle
| Initiative | Detail |
|---|---|
| NEP in higher education | Implemented in State and private universities from the 2024-25 session, starting with UG courses (BA, BSc, BCom, BCA, BBA) with multiple entry and exit |
| Primary education in local languages | In 2024, Chief Minister Vishnu Deo Sai directed the preparation of bilingual books in 18 local languages and dialects. The first phase covers Chhattisgarhi, Sargujiha, Halbi, Sadri, Gondi and Kurukh (कुड़ुख) |
| Swami Atmanand schools | Government schools of a higher standard, launched in 2020, initially as English-medium schools |
| PM SHRI | Chhattisgarh participates; selected government schools are being upgraded as model schools |
For tribal-area education issues, link this page with Social Aspects of Chhattisgarh and the state’s literacy data in Population of Chhattisgarh.
Memory Tricks
'21A-45-51A(k)' — the 86th Amendment trio
The 86th Amendment (2002) did three things, which map to three Parts of the Constitution:
- Part III: added 21A (right, 6–14)
- Part IV: rewrote 45 (care, below 6)
- Part IVA: added 51A(k) (duty, parents)
“Right, Care, Duty”: one amendment, three Parts.
5+3+3+4 = 'Play, Discover, Explore, Choose'
Foundational (play) · Preparatory (discover) · Middle (explore subjects) · Secondary (choose subjects). Ages run 3–8, 8–11, 11–14, 14–18.
NEP numbers: '3, 5, 2030, 2035, 6'
FLN by Class 3 · mother tongue till at least Class 5 · ECCE and 100% school GER by 2030 · 50% higher-education GER and end of affiliation by 2035 · 6% of GDP on education.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Art 21A — Fundamental Right, ages 6–14 | vs | Art 45 — Directive Principle, early childhood care below 6 |
| Art 350A — mother-tongue instruction at primary stage for linguistic minorities | vs | NEP 2020 — mother tongue as medium for all children up to at least Class 5 (policy, not a constitutional right) |
| 42nd Amendment (1976) — education moved to the Concurrent List | vs | 86th Amendment (2002) — Art 21A, Art 45 rewritten, Art 51A(k) |
| Kothari Commission (1964–66) → NPE 1968 | vs | Kasturirangan Committee (2017–19) → NEP 2020 |
| NIPUN Bharat — foundational literacy and numeracy mission (2021) | vs | PM SHRI — upgrading existing schools as model schools (2022) |
| PARAKH — national assessment centre (NCERT) | vs | NTA — conducts entrance exams (CUET, NEET-UG, JEE Main) |
Common Mistakes
MCQ traps
- “Art 21A covers children aged 0–14.” False. It covers 6–14. Below 6 is Art 45, a Directive Principle.
- “Education has always been a State subject.” False. It was a State subject until the 42nd Amendment (1976) moved it to the Concurrent List.
- “The RTE Act applies to minority schools.” False after Pramati (2014).
- “NEP 2020 makes Hindi compulsory in all States.” False. It retains the three-language formula with flexibility and says no language will be imposed.
- “The no-detention policy still applies everywhere up to Class 8.” False since the 2019 amendment, which allows States to detain in Classes 5 and 8 after a re-examination.
- “HECI / VBSA has replaced the UGC.” False as of August 2026. The Bill was still pending before a Joint Parliamentary Committee.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- Article 21A was inserted by the ______ Amendment Act.
- Under Section 12(1)(c) of the RTE Act, private unaided schools reserve ______% of entry-level seats for disadvantaged children.
- Under NEP 2020, the target Gross Enrolment Ratio in higher education by 2035 is ______.
Answers
- 86th (2002).
- 25.
- 50%.
Level 2: Prelims MCQs
Q1. Consider the following statements:
- Education was transferred from the State List to the Concurrent List by the 42nd Amendment.
- Article 45, as amended in 2002, directs the State to provide free and compulsory education to all children up to 14 years.
- Article 350A provides for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage for children of linguistic minority groups.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 3 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 3 only. Statement 2 describes the original Article 45. After the 86th Amendment, Article 45 deals with early childhood care and education until the age of six, while free and compulsory education for 6–14 became the Fundamental Right in Article 21A.
Q2. Match List I (Commission or Committee) with List II (Associated with):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Kothari Commission | 1. NEP 2020 draft |
| B. Radhakrishnan Commission | 2. National Policy on Education, 1968 |
| C. Kasturirangan Committee | 3. University education (1948–49) |
| D. Yash Pal Committee | 4. Single regulator for higher education (2009) |
- (a) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4
- (b) A-3, B-2, C-1, D-4
- (c) A-2, B-3, C-4, D-1
- (d) A-1, B-3, C-2, D-4
Answer and explanation
(a) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4. The Kothari Commission (1964–66) shaped NPE 1968. The Radhakrishnan Commission (1948–49) covered university education and recommended a University Grants Commission. The Kasturirangan Committee drafted NEP 2020. The Yash Pal Committee (2009) proposed a single higher-education regulator.
Q3. Under the 5+3+3+4 structure of NEP 2020, the “Preparatory” stage covers:
- (a) Ages 3–8: pre-school and Classes 1–2
- (b) Ages 8–11: Classes 3–5
- (c) Ages 11–14: Classes 6–8
- (d) Ages 14–18: Classes 9–12
Answer and explanation
(b) Ages 8–11: Classes 3–5. The stages are Foundational (3–8), Preparatory (8–11), Middle (11–14) and Secondary (14–18). A common trap is to put pre-school in the Preparatory stage; it belongs to the Foundational stage.
Q4. Which of the following was not part of NEP 2020’s provisions for higher education?
- (a) Academic Bank of Credits
- (b) Discontinuation of the M.Phil programme
- (c) Bringing medical and legal education under the single higher-education regulator
- (d) Multiple entry and exit in undergraduate programmes
Answer and explanation
(c). NEP 2020 proposed a single regulator, HECI, for higher education excluding medical and legal education. The Viksit Bharat Shiksha Adhishthan Bill, 2025 follows the same approach. The other three options are NEP provisions.
Q5. With reference to the RTE Act, 2009, which of the following is correct?
- (a) It came into force on 1 April 2009.
- (b) Its 2019 amendment allows States to hold regular examinations in Classes 5 and 8.
- (c) It applies to all schools including unaided minority schools.
- (d) It prescribes a pupil–teacher ratio of 40:1 at the primary level.
Answer and explanation
(b). The Act came into force on 1 April 2010, not 2009. Pramati (2014) excluded minority schools. The prescribed primary-level pupil–teacher ratio is 30:1.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (150–200 words) Evaluate the implementation of the National Education Policy 2020 so far. What challenges remain?
Model answer outline
- Intro: NEP 2020 (approved 29 July 2020) replaced the 1986 policy and aims at access, equity, quality, affordability and accountability.
- Progress (as of 2026):
- Foundations: NIPUN Bharat (2021), NCF-FS (2022) and NCF-SE (2023), new NCERT textbooks.
- Assessment: PARAKH survey (2024), CBSE Class 10 board exams twice a year from 2026.
- Higher education: four-year UG, Academic Bank of Credits, CUET, foreign campuses, ANRF Act 2023.
- Governance: VBSA Bill (December 2025) for a single regulator, pending before a JPC.
- Challenges: spending below 6% of GDP; teacher vacancies and training; federal friction (language, PM SHRI MoUs); digital divide; risk of centralisation; weak value of exit certificates.
- Chhattisgarh angle: NEP in State universities from 2024-25; bilingual primary books in 18 local languages for tribal areas.
- Conclusion: The framework is largely in place; outcomes depend on funding, teachers and Centre–State cooperation.
Q2. (60–80 words) Why is mother-tongue based education important for a state like Chhattisgarh?
Model answer outline
- Children in Bastar and Surguja often speak Halbi, Gondi, Kurukh or Sargujiha at home, not standard Hindi.
- Teaching in the home language improves comprehension and foundational literacy, and reduces dropout.
- It is supported by Art 350A and NEP 2020.
- The State’s 2024 decision on bilingual books in 18 local languages is a step; teacher training and scripts are the challenges.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Art 21A | 6–14 free and compulsory education; 86th Amendment 2002 |
| Art 45 | ECCE below 6 (after 2002) |
| Art 51A(k) | Duty of parents, 6–14 |
| Art 350A | Mother-tongue instruction at primary stage (linguistic minorities) |
| 42nd Amendment (1976) | Education to the Concurrent List (Entry 25) |
| Entry 66, Union List | Standards in higher education and research |
| RTE Act | 2009; in force 1 April 2010; 25% seats Sec 12(1)(c); 2019 amendment on detention |
| NPE 1968 | Kothari Commission; three-language formula |
| NPE 1986 / 1992 | Operation Blackboard; Navodaya; Programme of Action |
| NEP 2020 | 29 July 2020; Kasturirangan; 5+3+3+4; GER 50% by 2035; 6% of GDP |
| NIPUN Bharat | 5 July 2021; FLN by Class 3 |
| PM SHRI | September 2022; 14,500+ schools |
| CBSE Class 10 | Two board exams from 2026 |
| VBSA Bill | Introduced 15 December 2025; with JPC as of August 2026 |
| Chhattisgarh | NEP in universities from 2024-25; primary books in 18 local languages |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Education is a Concurrent List subject (42nd Amendment). Every national policy therefore depends on States.
- The 86th Amendment made education for 6–14 a Fundamental Right (Art 21A); the RTE Act (in force 2010) put it into effect.
- India has had three national policies: 1968, 1986 (revised 1992) and 2020.
- NEP 2020’s core: 5+3+3+4, foundational literacy, mother tongue, multiple-exit UG, single regulator, 6% of GDP.
- Implementation as of 2026 is partial: frameworks and schemes are in place, the single regulator is pending and funding lags.
What’s Next
- Skill Development and Employability — how schooling connects to jobs
- Higher Education and Research Institutions — UGC, AICTE, the VBSA Bill and Chhattisgarh’s institutions
- Welfare Programmes — PM POSHAN, Samagra Shiksha and other welfare-linked schemes
- Education and HRD — Quick Revision
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