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Indian Philosophy
Charvaka, Jain and Bauddha Philosophy
Heterodox (nastika) schools for CGPSC Mains GS-IV: Charvaka materialism, Jain anekantavada and karma theory, Buddhist anatta, kshanikavada and four schools.
Prerequisites
- Vedas and Upanishads: Brahman, Atman and Rta — the Vedic and Upanishadic views these schools reject or reshape.
- Jainism, Buddhism and Religious Movements — the history: Mahavira’s and the Buddha’s lives, councils, sects and spread. This page covers only the philosophy, so read the history chapter for biographical facts.
The Hook: A Philosopher in Kosala
Connect
In the 7th century CE the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang described a kingdom called Kosala, generally identified with Dakshin Kosala, the Chhattisgarh plains. He recorded that the great Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna had once lived in a monastery there. Whether or not that tradition is exact, the ruins of Sirpur show that serious Buddhist learning flourished on the Mahanadi.
Nagarjuna argued that nothing has a fixed, independent essence, not even the self. A few centuries earlier, Jain thinkers had argued that every statement is true only from some point of view. And long before both, the Charvakas said that only what you can see exists, so enjoy this life. Three schools, three challenges to the Vedic worldview. What exactly did each claim?
Why it matters: GS-IV names “Charvaka, Jain and Bauddha” philosophy. Mains asks for comparisons (Jain jiva vs Buddhist anatta; Charvaka vs the rest) and relevance (anekantavada and tolerance; the Buddhist Middle Path; Charvaka and scientific temper).
Astika and Nastika
graph TD
A["Indian darshanas (दर्शन)"] --> B["Astika (आस्तिक)
accept Vedic authority"]
A --> C["Nastika (नास्तिक)
reject Vedic authority"]
B --> D["Nyaya · Vaisheshika
Sankhya · Yoga
Mimamsa · Vedanta"]
C --> E["Charvaka
(materialist)"]
C --> F["Jain"]
C --> G["Bauddha"]
Astika does not mean theist
In classical Indian philosophy, astika / nastika turns on acceptance of the Vedas, not belief in God. Classical Sankhya and Purva Mimamsa do not need a creator God, yet they are astika. Jains and Buddhists are nastika because they reject the Veda’s authority, though both accept karma, rebirth and liberation.
Charvaka (चार्वाक) or Lokayata (लोकायत)
| Feature | Fact |
|---|---|
| Names | Charvaka; Lokayata (“prevalent among the people”, or “confined to this world”) |
| Traditional founder | Brihaspati; the Barhaspatya Sutra is lost |
| Sources | Mostly known through opponents’ summaries (e.g. the Sarvadarshanasangraha). A surviving sceptical work is Jayarashi Bhatta’s Tattvopaplavasimha |
| Early materialist | Ajita Kesakambali, a contemporary of the Buddha, taught a similar materialism |
Core doctrines
| Area | Charvaka view |
|---|---|
| Epistemology | Perception (pratyaksha) is the only valid means of knowledge. Inference is unreliable because we can never observe every case of a universal rule (smoke–fire everywhere); testimony, including the Veda, is not knowledge |
| Metaphysics | Materialism: only four elements, earth, water, fire, air. Akasha (ether) is rejected because it cannot be perceived |
| Consciousness | Arises when the elements combine in a body, as intoxicating power arises from mixing ingredients that are not individually intoxicating. No soul apart from the body (dehatmavada) |
| Religion | No God, no afterlife, no rebirth, no karma. Death is the end; “liberation” is simply death. The Vedas are criticised as the work of priests |
| Ethics | Pleasure (kama) is the goal, with artha as the means. Of the four purusharthas, only artha and kama are accepted; dharma and moksha are rejected |
The famous line, and a fairer reading
“यावज्जीवेत् सुखं जीवेत्, ऋणं कृत्वा घृतं पिबेत्” (“As long as you live, live happily; borrow and drink ghee”) is the verse usually attributed to the Charvakas, through their critics. Modern scholars warn that opponents may have caricatured the school. Its lasting contributions are a demand for evidence, a critique of priestly exploitation, and a this-worldly view of human welfare.
Mains use: Charvaka can be cited as an early Indian voice for empiricism and scientific temper (compare Article 51A(h)), and for questioning ritual authority. Its weakness: by rejecting inference it undermines even its own arguments, and pure hedonism gives no basis for duty to others.
Jain Philosophy (जैन दर्शन)
The history of Mahavira, the Tirthankaras, the vows and the sects is in Mahavira and Jain Philosophy. Here are the philosophical ideas.
Reality: jiva and ajiva
Jainism is realist and pluralist: reality is many, and it is real.
| Category | Content |
|---|---|
| Jiva (जीव) | Conscious souls, infinite in number, each separate; present in humans, animals, plants and even the elements (earth, water, fire, air bodies) |
| Ajiva (अजीव) | Non-conscious substances: pudgala (matter), dharma (medium of motion), adharma (medium of rest), akasha (space), kala (time) |
These are the six dravyas (substances): jiva + the five ajivas.
Karma as matter, and the seven tattvas
Unusually, Jainism treats karma as fine matter (pudgala) that sticks to the soul and weighs it down.
graph LR
A["1. Jiva"] --- B["2. Ajiva"]
B --> C["3. Asrava
inflow of karma"]
C --> D["4. Bandha
bondage"]
D --> E["5. Samvara
stopping inflow"]
E --> F["6. Nirjara
shedding karma"]
F --> G["7. Moksha
liberation"]- Moksha comes when all karma is shed; the soul regains its natural infinite knowledge, perception, bliss and power and rises to the top of the universe (siddhashila).
- The means: the Triratna (three jewels): samyak darshana (right faith), samyak jnana (right knowledge), samyak charitra (right conduct).
- There is no creator God. Liberated souls (siddhas, Tirthankaras) are revered as ideals, not as creators.
Knowledge: the five kinds
Mati (sense-based), shruta (from scripture/testimony), avadhi (clairvoyance), manahparyaya (knowing others’ minds), and kevala jnana (omniscience, attained by the liberated).
Anekantavada (अनेकांतवाद), Nayavada and Syadvada (स्याद्वाद)
| Doctrine | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Anekantavada | Reality is many-sided (an-eka-anta, “not one-sided”); it has infinite aspects |
| Nayavada | Every judgement is made from a particular standpoint (naya) and grasps only part of the truth |
| Syadvada | Every statement should be qualified with syat (“in some respect”, “from one point of view”) |
| Saptabhangi (सप्तभंगी) | The sevenfold predication: in some respect it (1) is, (2) is not, (3) is and is not, (4) is indescribable, (5) is and is indescribable, (6) is not and is indescribable, (7) is, is not and is indescribable |
The blind men and the elephant
One touches the trunk and says “a snake”, another the leg and says “a pillar”, a third the ear and says “a fan”. Each is partly right and wrong only in claiming to be wholly right. Anekantavada asks us to hold our views with the humility that we see only part of the elephant.
Mains use: anekantavada is the philosophical root of intellectual tolerance, dialogue and respect for opposing views: useful in answers on pluralism, communal harmony and policy-making with stakeholder consultation. With ahimsa and aparigraha (non-possession), it gives a Jain answer to violence, intolerance and over-consumption.
Bauddha Philosophy (बौद्ध दर्शन)
The Buddha’s life, the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path are covered in Buddha and Buddhist Philosophy. Here are the philosophical doctrines and schools.
Three marks of existence (trilakshana)
| Mark | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Anicca / Anitya (अनित्य) | Everything is impermanent |
| Dukkha / Duhkha (दुःख) | Everything conditioned is unsatisfactory |
| Anatta / Anatman (अनात्म) | There is no permanent self. A “person” is a changing bundle of five skandhas: form (rupa), feeling (vedana), perception (samjna), mental formations (samskara), consciousness (vijnana) |
Core doctrines
| Doctrine | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Pratityasamutpada (प्रतीत्यसमुत्पाद) | Dependent origination: everything arises from causes and conditions; nothing exists independently. Set out as a chain of 12 links (nidanas) from ignorance (avidya) to old age and death |
| Kshanikavada (क्षणिकवाद) | Momentariness: every existent lasts only a moment; what looks permanent is a rapid series. Developed by later Buddhist logicians |
| Karma without a self | Rebirth continues as a causal stream, like a flame lighting another lamp, not a soul moving between bodies |
| Nirvana (निर्वाण) | “Blowing out” the fires of craving, hatred and delusion; attainable in this life |
| Middle Path (Madhyama pratipada) | Between indulgence and self-mortification; philosophically, between eternalism (a permanent self) and annihilationism (nothing continues) |
| Agnosticism on metaphysics | The Buddha left some questions unanswered (avyakata), e.g. whether the world is eternal, as not useful for ending suffering |
Four philosophical schools
graph TD
A["Buddhist philosophical schools"] --> B["Hinayana / Sthaviravada line
(realist)"]
A --> C["Mahayana
(idealist / critical)"]
B --> D["Vaibhashika
direct realism"]
B --> E["Sautrantika
representationalism"]
C --> F["Yogachara (Vijnanavada)
only consciousness is real"]
C --> G["Madhyamika (Shunyavada)
emptiness"]| School | Also called | Key thinkers | Position |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vaibhashika | Sarvastivada; bahya-pratyaksha-vada | Based on the Vibhasha commentaries | External objects exist and are directly perceived |
| Sautrantika | Bahya-anumeya-vada | Relies on the sutras | External objects exist but are only inferred from mental images |
| Yogachara | Vijnanavada | Asanga, Vasubandhu | Only consciousness is real; external objects are its projections; alaya-vijnana (storehouse consciousness) |
| Madhyamika | Shunyavada | Nagarjuna (Mulamadhyamakakarika) | All things are shunya (empty) of independent essence (svabhava) because they arise dependently; two truths: conventional (samvriti) and ultimate (paramartha) |
Logic: Dignaga and Dharmakirti built Buddhist epistemology on just two pramanas: perception and inference.
Jain vs Buddhist vs Charvaka: The Comparison Table
| Point | Charvaka | Jain | Bauddha |
|---|---|---|---|
| Vedic authority | Rejected | Rejected | Rejected |
| God as creator | No | No | No |
| Soul | None apart from body | Jiva: eternal, infinite in number | Anatta: no permanent self |
| Karma and rebirth | Rejected | Accepted; karma is matter | Accepted; karma is intention (cetana) |
| Pramanas | Perception only | Perception, inference, testimony (classified as direct and indirect) | Perception and inference |
| Reality | Four material elements | Many real substances (six dravyas) | Momentary, dependently arising events |
| Goal | Pleasure in this life | Moksha / kaivalya through Triratna | Nirvana through the Eightfold Path |
| Ethics | Hedonism | Strict ahimsa, asceticism, five vows | Middle Path, compassion (karuna) |
| Signature idea | Empiricism | Anekantavada | Pratityasamutpada |
Chhattisgarh angle
- Sirpur (Mahasamund district) has the remains of Buddhist viharas of the Panduvanshi period, and Xuanzang’s Kosala is generally identified with this region. See Tourism and Heritage.
- The Bhand Deval at Arang and the Parshvanath tirth at Nagpura (Durg) are Jain sites; the Bhand Deval is a late-11th-century temple of the Kalachuri period.
- A Mains answer on “relevance of Buddhist / Jain ethics” can cite these to show the ideas shaped Chhattisgarh’s own past.
Memory Tricks
Charvaka: 'One-Four-Two'
One pramana (perception) · Four elements (no ether) · Two purusharthas (artha, kama).
Seven Jain tattvas: 'JAA BSN M'
Jiva, Ajiva, Asrava, Bandha, Samvara, Nirjara, Moksha: “Just As A Boat Sails, Never Moored”. Karma flows in (asrava), binds (bandha), is stopped (samvara), is shed (nirjara), and the soul is free (moksha).
Buddhist schools: 'Very Simple You Mean?'
Vaibhashika (objects seen directly) → Sautrantika (objects inferred) → Yogachara (only mind) → Madhyamika (even mind is empty). Each step takes the outside world less for granted.
Don’t Confuse
| This | vs | That |
|---|---|---|
| Jiva (Jain): eternal soul, even in plants and elements | vs | Anatta (Buddhist): no permanent self, five skandhas |
| Syadvada: “in some respect”, qualifying statements | vs | Shunyavada: all things empty of essence (Nagarjuna) |
| Yogachara / Vijnanavada: consciousness alone is real (Asanga, Vasubandhu) | vs | Madhyamika / Shunyavada: even consciousness lacks essence (Nagarjuna) |
| Kshanikavada: momentariness (Buddhist) | vs | Anekantavada: many-sidedness (Jain) |
| Jain dharma / adharma: media of motion and rest | vs | Ordinary dharma: duty, righteousness |
| Ajita Kesakambali: materialist, Buddha’s time | vs | Makkhali Gosala: Ajivika, fatalism (niyati) |
Common Mistakes
Traps in answers and MCQs
- “Nastika means atheist.” In darshana classification it means rejecting Vedic authority. Sankhya and Mimamsa are atheistic but astika.
- “Buddhism, like Jainism, accepts an eternal soul.” Buddhism teaches anatta. Jainism accepts jiva.
- “Charvakas accepted inference for practical purposes, so they had two pramanas.” The standard textbook position is perception only; write that, and add nuance only if asked.
- “Charvaka accepts five elements.” Four: earth, water, fire, air. Akasha is rejected as imperceptible.
- “Shunyavada means nothing exists.” It means things lack independent, fixed essence; they exist dependently. Nagarjuna rejected nihilism as much as eternalism.
- “Jain karma is a moral law like Buddhist karma.” Jains treat karma as subtle matter that physically binds the soul.
Practice
All questions below are original practice questions written in CGPSC style. They are not previous-year questions.
Level 1: Foundation
- The only valid source of knowledge for the Charvakas is ______.
- The Jain doctrine that every judgement is true only “in some respect” is called ______.
- The founder of the Madhyamika school of Buddhism was ______.
Answers
- Perception (pratyaksha).
- Syadvada (part of anekantavada; expressed through saptabhangi).
- Nagarjuna.
Level 2: Prelims-style MCQs (concept checks)
Q1. Consider the following statements:
- The Charvaka school accepts four elements and rejects akasha.
- Jain philosophy regards karma as a form of subtle matter.
- The Yogachara school holds that all things, including consciousness, are empty of essence.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- (a) 1 only
- (b) 1 and 2 only
- (c) 2 and 3 only
- (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer and explanation
(b) 1 and 2 only. Charvakas accept only the four perceptible elements; Jains treat karma as matter (pudgala) that binds the jiva. Statement 3 describes the Madhyamika (Shunyavada) of Nagarjuna. Yogachara holds that consciousness alone is real.
Q2. Match List I (Doctrine) with List II (School):
| List I | List II |
|---|---|
| A. Anekantavada | 1. Charvaka |
| B. Pratityasamutpada | 2. Jain |
| C. Dehatmavada (the body is the self) | 3. Madhyamika |
| D. Shunyavada | 4. Buddhist (general) |
- (a) A-2, B-3, C-1, D-4
- (b) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
- (c) A-1, B-4, C-2, D-3
- (d) A-4, B-2, C-1, D-3
Answer and explanation
(b) A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3. Anekantavada is Jain; dependent origination is common to all Buddhist schools; the Charvakas identify the self with the body; Shunyavada is the Madhyamika position.
Q3. Which pair of philosophers is associated with the Yogachara (Vijnanavada) school?
- (a) Nagarjuna and Aryadeva
- (b) Dignaga and Kumarila
- (c) Asanga and Vasubandhu
- (d) Kanada and Gautama
Answer and explanation
(c) Asanga and Vasubandhu. Nagarjuna and his disciple Aryadeva are Madhyamikas. Kumarila is a Mimamsaka. Kanada and Gautama founded Vaisheshika and Nyaya.
Q4. Which of the following is accepted by both Jainism and Buddhism but rejected by the Charvakas?
- (a) The authority of the Vedas
- (b) A creator God
- (c) Karma and rebirth
- (d) An eternal, unchanging soul
Answer and explanation
(c) Karma and rebirth. Both reject the Vedas and a creator God. Only Jainism accepts an eternal soul. The Charvakas reject karma, rebirth and any afterlife.
Level 3: Mains Answer Writing
Q1. (60 words) Explain anekantavada and its relevance in a plural society.
Model answer outline
- Meaning: Jain doctrine that reality is many-sided; every view grasps only part of the truth (nayavada), so statements should be qualified with syat (syadvada, saptabhangi).
- Illustration: the blind men and the elephant.
- Relevance: intellectual humility; dialogue across religions, regions and ideologies; consultative policy-making; resolving conflicts without violence.
Q2. (150–200 words) Compare the Jain and Buddhist views on the self and liberation. What common ethical message do they offer?
Model answer outline
- Intro: Both are nastika (reject Vedic authority), non-theistic, and accept karma and rebirth, yet they differ sharply on the self.
- Jain view: innumerable eternal jivas; karma is subtle matter that flows in (asrava) and binds (bandha); liberation by stopping and shedding karma (samvara, nirjara) through Triratna; the soul regains infinite knowledge (kevala jnana).
- Buddhist view: anatta: the person is five changing skandhas; everything is impermanent and dependently arising; rebirth is a causal stream; liberation is nirvana, the extinction of craving, through the Eightfold Path.
- Method: Jain severe austerity vs Buddhist Middle Path.
- Common ethics: ahimsa and compassion; self-control; non-possession; rejection of birth-based hierarchy; responsibility for one’s own actions.
- Chhattisgarh angle: Sirpur’s viharas and Arang’s Jain temple show both traditions in Dakshin Kosala.
- Conclusion: Different metaphysics, a shared ethic of non-violence and restraint that Gandhi and the Constitution’s values later drew on.
Quick Revision Table
| Fact | Detail |
|---|---|
| Astika / nastika | Accept / reject Vedic authority (not belief in God) |
| Charvaka | Brihaspati (trad.); perception only; 4 elements; no soul, God, rebirth; artha and kama |
| Charvaka sources | Opponents’ accounts; Jayarashi’s Tattvopaplavasimha; Ajita Kesakambali as early materialist |
| Jain dravyas | Jiva + pudgala, dharma, adharma, akasha, kala |
| Jain tattvas | Jiva, ajiva, asrava, bandha, samvara, nirjara, moksha |
| Jain knowledge | Mati, shruta, avadhi, manahparyaya, kevala |
| Anekantavada | Many-sidedness; nayavada; syadvada; saptabhangi (7) |
| Buddhist marks | Anicca, dukkha, anatta; five skandhas |
| Pratityasamutpada | Dependent origination; 12 nidanas |
| Kshanikavada | Momentariness |
| Vaibhashika / Sautrantika | Direct realism / objects inferred |
| Yogachara | Vijnanavada; Asanga, Vasubandhu |
| Madhyamika | Shunyavada; Nagarjuna; two truths |
| Buddhist logic | Dignaga, Dharmakirti; perception + inference |
Key Takeaways
Key Takeaways
- Nastika = rejecting the Vedas, not rejecting God: Charvaka, Jain and Bauddha.
- Charvaka: perception only, four elements, no soul or afterlife, pleasure as the goal; an early voice of empiricism.
- Jain: realist pluralism, eternal jivas, karma as matter, seven tattvas, Triratna, and anekantavada / syadvada as a philosophy of tolerance.
- Bauddha: anicca, dukkha, anatta; dependent origination; momentariness; four schools from realism (Vaibhashika) to emptiness (Madhyamika).
- Jain and Buddhist ethics share ahimsa, compassion and restraint, with Chhattisgarh links at Sirpur and Arang.
What’s Next
- Six Orthodox Schools and Advaita — the astika schools and their replies to Buddhism
- Buddhist Councils, Literature and Sects — Theravada and Mahayana, Sirpur and Xuanzang
- Western Thinkers — compare Charvaka with Greek materialists and empiricists
- Indian Philosophy — Quick Revision
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